J 


STONES 


FOR 


BUILDING   AND    DECORATION 


BY 


GEORGE    P.    MERRILL, 

i  i 

CURATOR   OF   GEOLOGY   IN  THB   UNITED   STATES   NATIONAL   MUSEUM. 


NEW  YORK : 
JOHN   WILEY  &   SONS, 

OS  EAST  TENTH  STREET. 
1891. 


r 


COPYRIGHT,  iSgitj 

BY 
JOHN   WILEY  &  SONS. 


ROBERT  DBmraoid).  *"»»»  BEOS., 

Electrotyper,  Printers, 

444  and  446  Pearl  St.,  326  Pearl  Street, 
New  York.  New  York. 


PREFACE. 


The  work  herewith  presented  is  based  upon  the  author's 
handbook  and  catalogue  of  the  collection  of  building  and  orna- 
mental stones  in  the  United  States  National  Museum  at  Wash- 
ington. It  differs  from  that  work,  however,  in  many  important 
particulars,  several  new  chapters  having  been  added,  others 
rewritten  and  the  whole  so  far  as  possible  brought  down  to 
date,  A  portion  of  the  added  matter  is  essentially  the  same, 
though  in  a  somewhat  different  form,  as  originally  appeared  in 
the  columns  of  Stone,  the  American  Architect,  the  Scientific 
American  Supplement,  and  other  of  our  industrial  journals. 
The  writer's  experience  in  preparing  the  extensive  collection 
in  the  National  Museum,  at  Washington,  as  well  as  its  partial 
duplicate  in  the  American  Museum  in  New  York  City,  has 
afforded  him  ample  opportunity  for  becoming  acquainted  with 
the  quarry  products  of  the  country  at  large,  while  extensive 
field  trips,  particularly  in  the  eastern  and  extreme  western 
United  States,  have  given  him  -a  practical  insight  into  the 
resources  of  the  regions  as  well  as  some  knowledge  concern- 
ing the  usual  methods  of  quarrying  and  working. 

That  there  is  a  demand  for  a  comprehensive  and  not  too 
technical  a  work  on  this  subject  has  been  emphatically  im- 
pressed upon  the  writer  many  times  during  the  past  few  years. 
How  far  the  pages  herewith  presented  shall  supply  this  de- 
mand, it  is  left  for  the  public  to  decide.  The  alphabetical 
arrangement  of  States  adopted  in  Part  II.  will  very  likely  at 

iii 


IV  PREFACE. 


first  be  subject  to  criticism  as  unscientific.  Such  an  arrange- 
ment for  purposes  of  rapid  reference,  has  however,  been  found 
so  much  superior  to  the  usual  geographic  method,  that  excuses 
are  not  deemed  necessary.  The  work,  it  should  be  stated,  has 
been  written  from  an  American  standpoint,  and  treats  princi- 
pally of  stones  found  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  or 
imported  from  other  sources.  In  but  few  instances  are  stones 
mentioned  that  are  of  purely  historical  interest. 

The  full-page  plates  illustrating  quarry  views,  were,  with  a 
single  exception,  drawn  from  photographs  taken  by  the  author. 
They  may,  therefore,  be  considered  as  reasonably  accurate. 
Thanks  are  due  the  authorities  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
for  the  privilege  of  electrotyping  such  of  the  engravings  in  the 
original  handbook  as  it  was  desired  to  reproduce  here. 

GEORGE  P.  MERRILL 

SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION, 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  JUNE,  1891. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PART   I. 

PAGE 

I.  HISTORICAL i 

II.  THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF   BUILDING-STONES   IN   THE 

UNITED  STATES 10 

III.  THE  MINERALS  OF  BUILDING-STONES 17 

IV.  PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  BUILDING-STONES 32 

V.  ROCK  CLASSIFICATION 42 

VI.  GEOLOGICAL  RECORD 43 

PART    II. 

THE    ROCKS,   QUARRIES   AND   QUARRY    REGIONS. 

I.  STEATITE:  SOAPSTONE. 45 

1.  Composition  and  Uses 45 

2.  Soapstones  of  the  Various  States  and  Territories 47 

II.  SERPENTINE  :  VERDANTIQUE  MARBLE 53 

1.  Composition,  Origin  and  Uses  of 53 

2.  Serpentines  of  the  various  States  and  Territories .  57 

3.  Foreign  Serpentines  ^ 72 

III.  GYPSUM  :  ALABASTER. 75 

1.  Composition  and  Uses  of 75 

2.  Localities  of  Gy psu  m  in  the  United  States 76 

3.  Foreign  Alabasters 77 

IV.  LIMESTONES  AND  DOLOMITES 78 

1.  Chemical  Composition  and  Origin 78 

2.  Varieties  of ... 80 

3.  Limestones  and  Dolomites  :  Marbles 83 

v 


VI  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

4.  The  Onyx  Marbles,  or  Travertines 116 

5.  Limestones  and  Dolomites  other  than  Marbles 122 

6.  Foreign  Limestones  and  Marbles 150 

V.  SOME  MINOR  ORNAMENTAL  STONES 167 

VI.  TilE  GRANITES  AND  GNEISSES 175 

1.  Composition  and  General  Properties 175 

2.  Geological  Age  and  Mode  of  Occurrence 177 

3.  Varieties  of  Granite 178 

4.  Uses  of  Granite 179 

5.  Granites  and  Gneisses  of  the  various  States  and  Territories..    180 

6.  Foreign   Granites 214 

VII.  THE  PORPHYRIES:  PORPHYRITIC  FELSITES 217 

1.  Composition  and  Origin 217 

2.  Varieties  of  Porphyry 218 

3.  Uses  of  Porphyry 218 

4.  Porphyries  of  the  Various  States  and  Territories 219 

5.  Foreign  Porphyries 221 

VIII.  THE  LIPARITES 221 

1.  Adaptability  of  Tertiary  and    Post-Tertiary   Rocks  to    Pur- 

poses of  Construction 221 

2.  Mineral  and  Chemical  Composition  of  the  Liparites 222 

3.  Varieties  of  Liparite 222 

4.  Liparites  of  the  Various  States  and  Territories 223 

IX.  SYENITES,  TRACHYTES  AND  PHONOLITES 223 

1.  Definition  of  Syenite 224 

2.  Localities  of  Syenite 224 

3.  Trachytes  and  Phonolites , 226 

X.  AUGITE   (ENSTATITE,   HYPERSTHENE)   PLAGIOCLASE   ROCKS    (TRAP 

AND  GREENSTONE  IN   PART) ;  228 

1.  Diabase 228 

2.  Gabbro  and  Norite 235 

3.  Melaphyr 238 

4.  Basalt 239 

XI.  AMPHIBOLE  PLAGIOCLASE  ROCKS  (TRAP  AND  GREENSTONE  IN  PART) 

1.  Diorites  and  Kersantites 239 

2.  The  Andesites 243 

XII.  SCHISTOSE,  OR  FOLIATED  ROCKS 244 

1 .  The  Gneisses 244 

2.  The  Schists t 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS.  Vll 


PAGE 

XIII.  FRAGMENTAL  Rocks 245 

1 .  Sandstones,  Breccias  and  Conglomerates 245 

(a)  Composition  and  Origin 245 

(b)  Varieties  of  Sandstone 248 

(c)  Sandstones  of  the  various  States  and  Territories 249 

(d)  Foreign  Sandstones 287 

2.  Volcanic  Fragmental  Rocks 290 

(a)  Definition,  Origin  and  Composition 290 

(b)  Varieties  of 291 

(c)  Localities  and  Uses  of 291 

3.  Argillaceous  Fragmental  Rocks  (Clay  Slates) 293 

(a)  Composition,  Structure  and  Origin 293 

(6)  Uses  of 298 

(<r)  Slates  of  the  variohis  States  and  Territories 299 

(d)  Foreign  Slates 312 

PART    III. 

I.  METHODS  OF  QUARRYING  AND   DRESSING  STONE 314 

II.  MACHINES  AND  IMPLEMENTS  USED  IN  STONE-WORKING 335  J 

III.  THE  WEATHERING  OF  BUILDING-STONE 350 

IV.  ON  THE  SELECTION  AND  TESTING  OF  BUILDING-STONE 374 

V.  METHODS  OF  PROTECTION  AND  PRESERVATION 395 

PART   IV. 

APPENDICES. 

I.  THE    QUALITIES   OF    STONE    AS    SHOWN    BY    THEIR    CRUSHING 
STRENGTH,    WEIGHT,    RATIO   OF    ABSORPTION,    AND    CHEMICAL 

COMPOSITION 404 

II.  THE  PRICES  OF  STONE  AND  COST  OF  DRESSING 422 

III.  LIST  OF  STONE  BUILDINGS  AND  DATE  OF  ERECTION 424 

IV.  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  WORKS  ON  BUILDING-STONE 428 

V.  GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS 431 

LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FULL   PAGE  PLATES. 
PLATE 

I.  General  view  of  Marble  Quarries  and  works  at  West  Rutland,  Ver- 
mont   •  •  •  Frontispiece 


vill  TABLE    OF  CONTENTS. 


FACING  PACK 

II.   Microscopic  Structures  of  Building-stone 35 

Fig.  i.  Muscovite-biotite  Granite,  Hallovvell,  Maine. 

2.  Oolitic  Limestone,  Litchfield,  Grayson  County,  Kentucky. 

3.  White  Marble,  West  Rutland,  Vermont. 

4.  Diabase,  Weehauken,  New  York. 

5.  Sandstone,  Potsdam,  New  York. 

6.  Sandstone,  Portland,  Connecticut. 

III.  Serpentine  Quarry,  Chester,  Pennsylvania 68 

IV.  Marble  Regions  of  Western  New  England 105 

V.   Interior  View  of  Marble  Quarry  at  West  Rutland,  Vermont 108 

VI.  Granite  Quarry  at  Hallovvell,  Maine igi 

VII.   Sandstone  Quarry  at  Portland,  Connecticut 258 

VIII.   Slate  Quarry  and  Surroundings  at  Bangor,  Pennsylvania 308 

IX.   Splitting  out  Stone  with  Wedges  at  Portland,  Connecticut 322 

X.  Figures  showing  Kinds  of  Finish 333 

1.  Rockface. 

2.  Pointed. 

3.  Pointed. 

4.  Tooth-chiselled. 

5.  Drove-chiselled. 

6.  Patent  Hammered. 

XI.   Hand  Implements  used  in  Working  Stone , , , 349 

Fig.  i.   Tooth  Chisel. 

2.  Drove  Chisel. 

3.  Chisel  for  Soft  Stone. 

4.  Point. 

5.  Hand-drill. 

6.  Chipper. 

7.  Pitching  Tool. 

8.  Chisel  for  Granite. 

.  9.  Chisel  for  Soft  Stone  (Marble,  etc.). 

10.  Face  or  Sledge  Hammer. 

11.  Striking  Hammer. 

12.  Bush  or  Patent  Hammer. 

13.  Ax  or  Pean  Hammer. 

14.  Plug  and  Feathers. 

15.  Mallet. 

16.  Hand  Hammer. 

17.  Grub  Saw.  \ 


7" ABLE   OF  CONTENTS.  IX 


FIGURES    IN   THE   TEXT. 

PAGE 

1.  Magnified  Section  of  a  Fossiliferous  Limestone. ...    82 

2.  Section  of  Mt.  Eolus,  Vermont  (after  Hitchcock) 107 

3.  Magnified  Section  of  a  Roofing  Slate 294 

4  and  5.    Figures  Explaining  Cause  of  Slaty  Cleavage 20,6 

6.  Wardwell  Channelling  Machine 321 

7.  Drilling  Holes  Preparatory  to  Splitting  by  Plug  and  Feather 324 

8.  Slate  Trimmer  at  Work 331 

9.  Eclipse  Rock  Drill 335 

10.  Improved  Quarry  Bar 336 

11.  Saunders  Channelling  Machine 337 

12.  Saunders  Channelling  Machine  Making  Sidehill  Cuts:  Boilers  Detached  338 

13.  Gang  of  Drills  for  Channelling  Machine 339 

14.  Diamond  Channelling  Machine 340 

15.  Diamond  Gadder 341 

16.  Ingersoll  Standard  Gadder 342 

17.  Plain  Quarry  Frame 343 

18.  McDonald  Stone-cutting  Machine. 346 


STONES  FOR    BUILDING  AND    DECORATION 


PART  I. 


HISTORICAL. 

The  use  of  stone  for  purposes  of  construction  dates  from  a 
very  early  period  in  human  history.  Within  the  limits  of  North 
America,  however,  except  as  practiced  in  a  crude  way  by  cer- 
tain tribes  in  the  arid  regions  of  the  West,  its  use  necessarily 
dates  from  a  period  comparatively  recent. 

The  early  settlers  in  the  eastern  states  found  wood  abun- 
dant and  cheap.  They  were  as  a  rule  comparatively  poor,  and 
with  little  taste  for  architectural  display,  even  had  their  means 
permitted  its  indulgence.  But  with  the  gradual  increase  in  in- 
dividual wealth  and  culture  there  was  naturally  developed  a 
taste  in  architecture  which  could  be  gratified  only  in  the  em- 
ployment of  some  less  perishable  material :  for  such,  fortunately, 
the  early  settlers  of  eastern  Massachusetts  had  not  far  to  look. 
The  first  stones  quarried  in  this  State  are  thought  by  Professor 
Shaler  to  have  been  the  clayslates  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston. 
These,  however,  were  worked  only  in  a  small  way  and  the  prod- 
uct used  for  grave-  and  mile-stones,  and  a  few  lintels. 

According  to  Shurtleff*  one  of  the  first  stone  buildings  in 
Boston  was  the  house  of  Deacon  John  Phillips.  This  was 
erected  about  1650,  and  continued  to  stand  until  1864.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  been  built  from  granite  bowlders  found  in  the 

*  History  of  Boston,  p.  589. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

immediate  vicinity.  In  1737  was  built  of  bowlders  of  Braintree 
granite  the  old  Hancock  house,  since  torn  down,  and  in  1749- 
'54  King's  chapel,  which  is  still  standing  on  the  corner  of  School 
and  Tremont  Streets.  This  last  was  at  the  time  the  greatest 
stone  construction  ever  undertaken  in  Boston,  if  not  in  America. 
Like  those  already  mentioned,  it  was  built  from  bowlders  ;  and,, 
considering  the  method  of  cutting  employed  (to  be  noticed 
later),  was  a  remarkable  structure.  The  granite  bowlders  scat- 
tered over  the  commons  had  been  very  generally  used  in  Quincy 
and  vicinity  for  steps  and  foundations'  for  some  years  previous 
to  this,  until  at  last,  fearing  lest  the  supply  should  become  ex- 
hausted, the  inhabitants  assembled  in  town  meeting  and  voted 
that,  "  no  person  shall  dig  or  carry  off"  any  stone  "  on  the  said 
commons  or  undivided  lands  upon  any  account  whatever  with- 
out license  from  the  committee,  upon  penalty  of  the  forfeiture  of 
IO  shillings  for  every  and  each  cart-load  so  dug  and  carried  away." 
It  was  not,  however,  until  the  early  part  of  the  present  cen- 
tury that  granite  began  to  be  used  at  all  extensively  in  and 
about  Boston,  when  the  material  was  introduced  in  considera- 
ble quantities  by  canal  from  Chelmsford,  30  miles  distant.  It 
was  from  Chelmsford  stone  that  was  constructed  in  1810  the 
Boston  court-house  ;  in  1814  the  New  South  church  ;  and  about 
the  same  time  the  Congregational  house  on  Beacon  Street  ;  the 
old  Parkman  house  on  Bowdoin  Square  ;  University  hall  in 
Cambridge;  and  in  iSiS-'iQ  the  first  stone  block  in  the  city,  a 
portion  of  which  is  still  standing,  on  'Brattle  Street.  In  this 
year  also  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  stone  was  shipped  to 
Savannah,  Georgia,  for  the  construction  of  a  church  at  that 
place.  The  greater  part  of  this  granite  was,  however,  obtained 
from  bowlders,  and  it  was  not  until  the  opening  of  quarries  at 
Quincy,  in  1825,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  stone  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  Bunker  Hill  monument  that  the  business 
assumed  any  great  importance. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  3 

In  1824  a  Mr.  Bates,  of  Quincy,  went  to  Sandy  Hook,  in 
the  adjacent  town  of  Gloucester,  and  opened  a  granite  quarry 
there.  Not  long  after  other  quarries  were  opened  at  Anisquam, 
where  an  extensive  industry  was  carried  on  for  some  years, 
though  finally  abandoned.  Quarries  were  opened  at  Rockport, 
just  beyond  Gloucester,  in  1827,  and  are  still  in  active  opera- 
tion. In  1848  the  quarries  at  Bay  View  were  opened.  These 
have  since  become  the  property  of  the  Cape  Ann  Granite  Com- 
pany, and  produce  annually  some  500,000  cubic  feet  of  stone. 

Although  the  Massachusetts  quarries  were  the  first  syste- 
matically worked  to  obtain  granite  for  building  purposes,  other 
States  were  not  far  behind.  Thus  we  are  told  by  Dr.  Field  * 
that  as  early  as  1792  granite  quarries  were  reported  to  have 
been  opened  at  Haddam  Neck,  in  Connecticut,  and  as  many  as 
ninety  hands  were  employed  in  this  and  other  quarries  in  the 
vicinity  as  early  as  1819.  This  material  is,  however,  a  gneiss 
rather  than  a  granite,  and  splitting  readily  into  slabs,  was  used 
nearly  altogether  for  curbing  and  paving,  for  which  purpose  it 
brought  from  10  to  20  cents  per  cubic  foot.  The  principal 
markets  for  the  material  were  Rhode  Island  and  the  cities  of 
Boston,  New  York,  Albany,  and  Baltimore. 

The  rocky  coast  and  adjacent  islands  of  Maine  are  capable 
of  furnishing  immense  quantities  of  granitic  rock  of  a  color  and 
quality  not  to  be  excelled.  The  rare  excellence  of  many  of 
these  sites  for  quarries,  together  with  the  ready  facilities  of 
transportation  by  water  to  all  the  leading  cities,  early  made 
itself  apparent  to  the  shrewd  and  pushing  business  men  of  New 
England,  and  a  very  few  years  after  the  commencing  of  works 
at  Quincy  saw  similar  beginnings  made  at  various  points  both 
on  the  coast  and  farther  inland.  The  years  i836-'37  appear  to 


*  Centennial  address  and  historical  sketches  of  Middletown,  Cromwell,  Port- 
land, Chatham,  and  Middle  Haddam. 


4  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

have  been  peculiarly  prolific  in  schemes  for  speculation  in  this 
industry. 

It  is  stated  by  North  *  that  during  the  latter  year,  out  of  one 
hundred  and  thirty- five  acts  of  incorporation  granted  by  the 
State  legislature,  thirty  were  for  granite  companies,  three  of 
which  were  located  in  Augusta.  One  was  called  the  Augusta 
and  New  York  Granite  Company,  and  was  for  working,  rend- 
ing, transporting,  and  dealing  in  granite  from  the  Hamlen 
ledge,  situated  about  two  miles  from  the  river  by  way  of  West- 
ern Avenue.  Another,  named  the  Augusta  and  Philadelphia 
Granite  Company,  owned  the  Ballard  ledge,  a  mile  and  a  half 
from  Kennebec  bridge  by  way  of  Northern  Avenue.  A  large 
portion  of  the  granite  for  the  state-house,  court-house,  and  new 
jail  was  obtained  from  this  ledge.  The  other  company,  called 
the  Augusta  Blue  Ledge  Company,  purchased  Hall's  ledge,  on 
the  east  side  of  the  river,  near  Daniel  Hewin's  house,  some  2^ 
miles  from  the  bridge. 

It  is  further  stated  by  this  same  authority  that  during  the 
erection  of  the  State-house  blocks  of  granite  for  the  colonnade. 
21  feet  long  by  nearly  4  feet  in  diameter,  were  obtained  from 
the  Melvin  ledge,  in  Hallowell,  about  three  miles  away.  Con- 
venient and  abundant  as  are  these  quarry  sites,  it  seems  a  little 
singular  that  they  should  not  have  been  earlier  discovered  and 
worked.  In  building  the  Kennebec  bridge  in  1797,  the  piers 
and  abutments  were  constructed  of  stone  split  from  drift  bowl- 
ders, and  the  houses  of  Capt.  William  Robinson,  Judge  Bridge, 
and  Benjamin  Whitwell,  all  built  about  1801,  had  for  underpin- 
ning granite  brought  at  great  expense  from  near  Boston,  prob- 
ably Quincy,  or  perhaps  Chelmsford.  Most  of  the  stone  of 
large  dimensions  of  which  the  old  jail  was  built  in  1808  were 
also,  it  is  stated,  obtained  with  great  labor  from  bowlders, 

*  History  of  Augusta,  Maine,  p.  582. 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  5 

though  an  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  to  work  the  Rowell 
ledge  at  the  time.  Some  of  the  top  strata  were  broken  off  by 
means  of  wedges  driven  under  the  sheets,  but  the  process  was 
laborious  and  slow.  The  first  successful  attempt  to  work  a 
ledge  in  town  is  stated  to  have  been  made  by  Jonathan  Matthews 
on  the  Thwing  ledge,  in  1825.  The  Frankfort  Granite  Com- 
pany, located  at  the  base  of  Mosquito  Mountain,  Waldo  Coun- 
ty, began  operations  in  May,  1836,  and  within  the  next  two 
years  took  out  and  sold  upwards  of  §50,000  worth  of  material. 
What  is  now  the  Hallowell  Granite  Company  opened  its  quar- 
ries in  1838,  and  during  the  first  ten  years  is  stated  to  have 
sold  $500,000  worth  of  stone. 

It  is  stated  by  Professor  Seely*  that  the  earliest  attempts 
at  quarrying  marbles  in  New  England  were  those  of  Philo 
Tomlinson,  who  began  operations  at  Marbledale,  in  the  town 
of  New  Milford,  Connecticut,  about  1800.  Other  quarries  were 
soon  after  opened,  and  in  1830  as  many  as  fifteen  were  inactive 
operation  within  a  distance  of  three  miles  of  this  place.  The 
product  was  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  Soon  after  this 
date,  competition  set  in  from  other  localities,  particularly  from 
Dover,  New  York,  and  Rutland,  Vermont,  and  by  1850  the 
business  had  proved  so  unremunerative  that  the  last  quarry  at 
Marbledale  was  abandoned.  Marble  quarries  and  mills  were 
also  put  in  active  operation  at  West  Stockbridge,  in  Massa- 
chusetts, as  early  as  1802  or  1803.  Work  was  stopped  here  in 
1855,  owing  to  competition  of  Vermont  and  Italian  marbles. 

Of  the  many  marble  quarries  in  Vermont,  those  in  East 
Dorset  are  believed  to  have  been  longest  worked,  Professor 
Seely  stating  one  Isaac  Underhill  began  operations  here  as 
early  as  1785,  the  product  being  utilized  for  fire-jams,  chimney 
backs,  hearths,  and  lintels.  Other  quarries  soon  opened,  and 
from  '1785  to  1841,  nine  were  in  operation  at  this  place.  The 
*  Marble  Border  of  New  England,  p.  27 


0  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

first  marble  gravestone  ever  finished  in  the  State  is  believed 
to  have  been  the  work  of  Jonas  Stewart  in  1790.  Prior  to  the 
introduction  of  Italian  and  Rutland  marble,  about  1840,  the 
supply  of  the  Dorset  stone  was  not  equal  to  the  demand.  At 
West  Rutland,  works  were  first  put  in  successful  operation 
about  1838.  At  the  present  time  not  less  than  fifteen  quarries 
are  in  operation,  affording  employment  altogether  to  about 
2,000  men. 

The  first  stone  quarried  and  used  in  Philadelphia  is  said  to 
have  been  the  micaceous  and  hornblendic  gneiss  which  occurs  in 
inexhaustible  quantities  in  the  immediate  vincinity.  This  was 
at  first  used  only  for  foundations  and  rough  construction.  The 
first  house  built  within  the  city  limits,  that  built  in  Letitia 
Court  by  order  of  William  Penn,  was  constructed  on  a  founda- 
tion of  this  stone  about  the  year  1682.  The  Old  Swedes 
church,  built  in  1698,  Independence  Hall,  and  numerous  other 
structures  are  said  to  have  had  similar  foundations.  Later, 
entire  walls  were  made  of  the  material,  as  in  the  house  of  John 
Penn,  erected  in  1785,  and  which  is  still  standing.  The  quarry- 
ing of  marble  in  Montgomery  County,  Pennsylvania,  is  said  to 
have  been  commenced  by  a  Mr.  Daniel  about  the  time  of  the 
Revolution.*  This  stone  seems  to  have  immediately  become 
a  favorite  for  trimming  purposes,  and  to  have  been  used  in 
Philadelphia  to  the  almost  entire  exclusion  of  other  material 
until  as  late  as  1840.  During  this  time  many  fine  buildings 
were  constructed  from  it,  as  will  be  noted  later. 

Sandstone  quarrying  in  the  United  States  doubtless  began 
with  the  itinerant  working  of  the  extensive  beds  of  Triassic 
brownstone  in  the  vicinity  of  Portland,  Connecticut.  It  is  stated  f 
that  the  first  quarry  here  was  opened  "  where  the  stone  origin- 

*  First  Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania,  Vol.  i. 

f  Centennial  Address  and   Historical   Sketches  of  Middletown,    Cromwell, 
Portland,  Chatham,  and  Middle  Haddam,  by  D.  D.  Field,  1853. 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION7.  7 

ally  rose  high  and  hung  shelving  over  the  river."  The  value 
of  the  material  was  early  recognized,  and  it  began  to  be  utilized 
for  building  and  for  monuments  soon  after  the  settlement  of 
Middletown  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  stream.  The  quarries 
were  at  this  time  regarded  as  common  property,  and  were 
worked  as  occasion  demanded  both  by  people  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  and  by  those  living  at  a  distance,  who  carried  off  the 
material  in  scows  or  boats  of  some  sort,  nor  thought  of  giving 
anything  as  an  equivalent.  This  system  of  free  quarrying  had 
assumed  such  proportions  as  early  as  1665,  that  on  September 
4  of  that  year,  the  citizens  of  Middletown  assembled  in  town 
meeting  and  voted  "  that  whoever  shall  dig  or  raise  stone  at 
ye  rocks  on  the  east  side  of  the  river  (now  Portland)  for  any 
without  the  town,  the  said  digger  shall  be  none  but  an  inhabi- 
tant of  Middletown,  and  shall  be  responsible  to  ye  towne 
twelve  pence  pr.  tunn  for  every  tunn  of  stones  that  he  or  they 
shall  digg  for  any  person  whosoever  without  the  towne  ;  this 
money  to  be  paid  in  wheat  and  pease  to  ye  townsmen  or  their 
assigns  for  ye  use  of  ye  towne  within  six  months  after  the  trans- 
portation of  the  said  stone."* 

How  soon  the  surface  rock  was  exhausted  and  it  became 
necessary,  as  now,  to  go  below  the  level  of  the  ground  for  suit- 
able material  is  not  stated,  but  the  qua"rry  thus  opened  was  at 
length  disposed  of  by  the  town  and  passed  through  various 
hands,  among  whom  the  names  of  Shaler  &  Hall  are  conspicu- 
ous. These  parties  pursued  the  business  vigorously  and  made 
a  handsome  profit.  For  several  years  between  1810  and  1820 
some  thirty  hands  and  from  four  to  six  teams  were  employed 
for  the  eight  months  comprising  the  quarrying  season.  Some 
50  rods  south  of  this  quarry  another  was  opened  about  1783, 
and  was  owned  by  Messrs.  Hulburt  &  Roberts.  About  1814 

*  Freestone  Quarries  of  Portland.  Conn.,   by  Prof.  J.  Johnson,   National 
Magazine,  1853,  p.  268. 


8  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

this  was  purchased  from  the  heirs  of  Aaron  Hulburt  and 
deeded  to  Erastus  and  Silas  Brainard,  who  carried  on  the  busi- 
ness conjointly  until  the  death  of  the  latter  in  1847.  The 
business  is  carried  on  under  the  name  of  Brainard  &  Co.,  to  the 
present  time.  For  some  five  years  after  this  firm  began  work 
they  employed  but  from  seven  to  ten  hands  and  two  yoke  of 
oxen.  In  1819  a  quarry  was  opened  north  of  the  Shaler  & 
Hall  quarry,  by  the  firm  of  Patten  &  Russell.  It  was  afterwards 
known  as  the  Russell  &  Hall  quarry,  and  finally  in  1841  was 
united  with  that  of  Shaler  &  Hall,  the  firms  combining  to  form 
the  Middlesex  Quarry  Company.  Some  years  later  still  another 
opening  was  made  below  the  Brainard  quarry  near  the  ferry 
between  Portland  and  Middletown.  This  also  was  known  as 
the  Shaler  &  Hall  quarry  ;  the  original  firm  by  this  name  hav- 
ing been  incorporated  with  the  Middlesex  Quarry  Company. 

The  three  firms  above  enumerated  continued  until  quite  re- 
cently to  monopolize  the  quarrying  industry  at  this  place.  The 
quarries  extend  from  a  point  near  the  ferry  northward  along 
the  river  for  some  three-fourths  of  a  mile,  and  vary  in  depth 
from  50  to  150  feet.  Their  yield  of  stone  of  all  grades  during 
the  time  of  their  operation  has  been  roughly  estimated  at 
4,300,000  cubic  feet.  The  rate  of  progress  is  given  as  follows  : 
In  1850  the  number  of  men  employed  at  the  three  quarries  was 
about  900  and  100  yoke  of  oxen  ;  thirty  vessels  being  regularly 
employed  to  convey  the  quarried  material  to  the  markets,  each 
vessel  conveying  from  75  to  150  tons  and  making  from  twenty 
to  thirty  trips  each  season.  Two  years  later  the  number  of 
workmen  regularly  employed  had  increased  to  1,200,  while  200 
more  were  engaged  on  contract  work.  The  stone,  even  at 
this  date,  had  found  its  way  to  markets  as  far  west  as  Milwau- 
kee and  San  Francisco.  The  census  returns  for  1880  showed 
the  total  number  of  men  employed  to  be  but  925,  with  80  yoke 
of  oxen  and  55  horses  and  mules.  The  falling  off  in  numbers 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND    DECORATION.  9 

may  doubtless  be  considered  due  to  the  introduction  of  machi- 
nery and  improved  methods  of  working.  The  total  product  of 
the  three  quarries  for  this  year  was  about  781,600  cubic  feet, 
valued  at  not  less  than  $650,000.  A  fleet  of  twenty-five  vessels 
of  various  kinds  was  regularly  employed  in  transporting  this 
material  to  market. 

The  quarrying  of  slate  for  roofing  purposes  is  an  industry 
of  comparatively  recent  origin  in  the  United  States,  but  few 
of  the  quarries  having  been  operated  for  a  longer  period  than 
thirty  or  forty  years.  The  earliest  opened  and  systematically 
worked  are  believed  to  have  been  those  at  West  Bangor,  Penn- 
sylvania, which  date  back  to  1835.  The  abundance  of  slate 
tombstones  in  many  of  our  older  church-yards,  however,  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  for  other  purposes  than  roofing,  these 
stones  have  been  quarried  from  a  much  earlier  period.  It  is 
stated,  moreover,  that  as  early  as  1721  a  cargo  of  20  tons  of 
split  slate  was  brought  to  Boston  from  Hangman's  Island,  in 
Braintree  Bay,  which  may  have  been  used  in  part  for  roofing 
purposes  ;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  material  for  this  pur- 
pose was  imported  directly  from  Wales.  It  is  also  stated  * 
that  slates  were  quarried  at  Lancaster,  Massachusetts,  as  early 
as  1750  or  1753,  and  were  in  extensive  use  in  Boston  soon  after 
the  close  of  the  Revolution.  The  old  Handcock  house  on  Beacon 
street,  already  noted  (ante,  p.  2),  was  covered  with  slate  from 
these  quarries,  as  \vas  also  the  old  State-house  and  several  other 
buildings.  This  quarry  was  worked  more  or  less  for  fifty  years 
and  formed  at  one  time  quite  an  important  industry,  but  which 
finally  became  unprofitable,  and  about  1825  or  1830  the  works 
were  discontinued,  not  to  be  again  started  till  about  1877. 

The  first  quarry  opened  in  what  is  now  the  chief  slate- 
producing  region  of  the  United  States  was  that  of  Mr.  J.  W. 

*  Marvin's  History  of  Lancaster,  Massachusetts. 


IO  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

Williams,   situated    about  a  mile   northwest   of  Slateford,  in 
Pennsylvania.     This  dates  back  to  the  year  1812.* 

The  Vermont  slate  quarries  are  of  still  more  recent  develop- 
ment, work  not  being  begun  here  till  1845,  when  Hon.  Alason 
Allen  began  the  manufacture  of  school  slates  at  Fairhaven.f  1 1 
is  interesting  to  note,  in  this  connection,  that  during  the  busi- 
ness depression  of  i876-'8o  almost  the  entire  product  of  the 
American  quarries  was  exported  to  England,  where  it  sold  for 
even  less  than  the  Welsh  slates,  though  necessarily  at  very  small 
profits.  The  return  of  more  prosperous  times,  however,  created 
a  local  demand,  and  the  export  trade  has  proportionally  de- 
creased, though  considerable  quantities  are  still  sent  to  the  West 
Indies,  South  America,  England,  Germany,  and  even  New  Zea- 
land and  Australia. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  BUILDING  STONE  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 

Since  with  material  so  weighty  as  stone,  the  matter  of  trans- 
portation is  an  important  item,  it  may  be  well  to  devote  a  little 
space  at  the  outstart  to  a  consideration  of  the  geographical  dis- 
tribution of  stones  of  various  kinds  throughout  the  United 
States.  This  distribution,  it  will  be  observed,  is  a  very  unequal 
one,  and  since  this  is  dependent  upon  geological  causes  a  little 
attention  must  first  be  given  to  the  various  processes  of  rock 
formation. 

The  majority  of  stones  used  for  any  form  of  structural  or 
decorative  work  may  be  roughly  classed  under  three  heads  : 
(i)  The  crystalline  silicious  rocks,  including  the  granites, 
gneisses  and  diabases,  or  trap-rocks  ;  (2)  the  calcareous  rocks, 

*  Rep.  D,  3,  Second  Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania,  p.  85. 
f  Geology  of  Vermont,  Vol.  II,  1861,  p.  791. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  II 

including  all  limestones  and  dolomites,  both  the  crystalline  and 
compact  common  varieties  ;  and,  (3)  the  fragmental  or  clastic 
rocks,  including  the  sandstone  and  clay  slates.  Those  of  the 
first  group  result  either  as  erupted  molten  matter  from  the 
earth's  interior  or  from  the  metamorphism  of  silicious  sedi- 
ments. Those  of  the  second  group  originate  mainly  as  de- 
posits of  calcareous  mud  from  the  breaking  up  of  shells,  corals 
and  the  remains  of  other  marine  animals  on  an  old  sea  bottom. 
Those  of  the  third  group  result  from  the  breaking  up  of  older 
rocks,  and  the  accumulation  on  the  bottoms  of  lakes  and  seas 
of  the  resultant  sand,  clay,  or  mud  in  beds  of  varying. thickness, 
to  be  subsequently  hardened  into  stone. 

Now  the  essential  difference  between  a  marble  and  a  com- 
pact common  limestone,  like  those  of  Ohio  or  Kansas,  is  that 
the  first  has  undergone  through  the  combined  action  of  heat 
and  pressure,  just  the  right  degree  of  change,  or  metamorphism 
as  it  is  technically  called,  to  develop  in  it  crystallization  and 
color ;  the  essential  difference  between  a  brick  or  fire  clay  and 
a  cleavable  slate  suitable  for  roofing,  is,  as  explained  elsewhere, 
that  the  first  named  still  retains  its  plastic  condition  as  it  was 
lain  down  in  the  form  of  fine  silt  on  a  sea  bottom,  while  the 
slate  has  by  geological  agencies,  by  actual  movements  of  the 
earth's  crust,  been  so  squeezed  and  compressed  as  to  lose  all 
resemblance  to  its  former  self,  and  become  the  cleavable  article 
of  commerce  we  now  find  it. 

Now  since  the  processes  of  change  as  noted  above  are  de- 
pendent very  largely  upon  the  actual  movements,  warpings  and 
foldings  as  one  might  say,  of  the  earth's  crust  and  the  heat  and 
chemical  action  which  is  thereby  generated,  and  since  these 
movements  take  place  only  with  extreme  slowness,  whole  geo- 
logic ages  being  occupied  in  their  conception  and  completion, 
it  follows  as  a  matter  of  course  that  these  metamorphic  rocks, 
these  gneisses,  marbles  and  roofing  slates,  are  found  only 


12  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

among  the  older  rocks  and  only  in  those  portions  of  the  country 
where  this  crust  has  been  wrapped,  compressed  and  folded  as 
in  the  process  of  mountain  making.  In  other  words,  one  need 
expect  to  find  these  rocks  in  their  best  development  only  in 
States  bordering  along  more  or  less  extensive  mountain  ranges, 
while  in  the  great  interior  plains  and  prairie  regions  they  will 
be  comparatively  rare.  It  is  of  course  probable,  and  perhaps 
may  be  regarded  as  a  matter  of  certainty,  that  at  great  depths 
beneath  the  land  surface  in  this  interior  region,  are  to  be  found 
the  Archaean  gneisses  which  seem  to  form  the  floor  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  possibly  other  rocks  metamorphosed  by  the  heat 
and  pressure  of  great  depths.  Being,  however,  covered  by 
thousands  of  feet  of  later  deposits  they  may  for  our  purposes 
be  left  out  of  consideration.  Let  us  then  consider  the  physical 
features  of  the  earth's  crust  as  found  within  the  limits  of  the 
United  States,  and  discuss  briefly  the  various  rocks  so  far  as 
they  are  dependent  upon  or  controlled  by  these  features. 

Let  one  take  a  map  of  the  United  States  and  draw  a  straight 
line  from  a  point  near  Montreal,  Canada,  to  the  middle  of 
Alabama.  East  of  this  line  will  lie  the  entire  Appalachian 
mountain  system  and  with  a  few  exceptions  the  States  traversed 
by  or  bordering  upon  this  system  are  the  only  States  east  of 
the  Rocky  mountains  containing  granites,  gneisses,  diabases, 
crystalline  calcareous  rocks  (marbles)  or  roofing  slates.  These 
exceptions  are  to  be  found  in  northern  Wisconsin  ;  in  Minne- 
sota, west  of  Minneapolis  ;  in  small  areas  in  southeastern  Mis- 
souri, principally  in  Iron,  Madison  and  St.  Frangois  Counties ; 
the  Black  Hills  in  Dakota  ;  in  a  small  area  near  Little  Rock,  Ar- 
kansas, and  in  a  few  small  isolated  areas  in  the  Indian  Territory 
and  eastern  Texas,  as  in  Burnet  County.  The  whole  interior  of 
the  country,  comprising  all  but  the  extreme  eastern  portions  of 
West  Virginia,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  ;  all  of  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  the  Dakotas,  Kansas,  Mississippi, 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  13 

Louisiana,  Florida,  Oklahoma,  and  with  the  exceptions  above 
noted,  all  of  Missouri,  Arkansas  and  eastern  Texas,*  though 
containing  sandstones  and  limestones  of  the  common  and  oolit- 
ic types,  produce  neither  granite,  gneiss,  trap-rocks  nor  slates, 
nor,  except  in  small  quantities,  anything  that  can  be  called  a 
marble.  The  earth's  crust  throughout  this  entire  area  has  been 
little  changed  or  disturbed  by  the  eruption  of  molten  rocks  or 
by  the  processes  of  mountain  making.  The  sedimentary  rocks 
remain  little  altered,  or  if  metamorphosed,  they  have  been, 
and  still  remain,  covered  by  later  deposits. 

It  does  not  necessarily  follow,  however,  that  all  the  rocks 
east  of  this  line,  as  drawn  above,  have  undergone  metamorphism. 
On  the  contrary  there  remain  many  areas  of  rock  little  changed, 
and  in  some  cases  it  is  possible  to  trace  beds  of  unaltered  lime- 
stone till  they  pass  into  the  pure  white  marble.  It  has  thus 
been  shown  that  the  pure  white  statuary  marble  of  Carrara, 
Italy,  was  once  a  common  fossiliferous  limestone,  but  which 
has  become  converted  into  marble  by  the  heat  and  pressure 
incident  to  the  formation  of  the  Apennine  Mountains. 

Hence  it  is  that  mountainous  countries  as  a  rule  contain  a 
greater  variety  of  material  than  do  the  level  prairie  regions. 
Nature  makes  her  own  compensations,  and  if  by  mountain 
building  or  glacial  erosion  she  has  rendered  a  country  unfit  for 
cultivation,  she  has  as  a  rule  rendered  an  equivalent  by  furnish- 
ing and  rendering  accessible  through  the  same  agencies  inex- 
haustible supplies  of  building  stone,  anthracite  coal,  copper, 
iron,  and  the  ores  of  the  precious  metals. 

He,  then,  who  is  seeking  new  supplies  of  any  of  these 
eruptive  or  metamorphic  rocks,  need  not  seek  them  in  the  in- 
terior States  mentioned  ;  in  the  Southern  States  south  of  Mont- 

*  West  of  the  Picos  River  are  Archaean  areas  which  will  doubtless  prove 
capable  of  furnishing  valuable  material. 


14  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

gomery,  Alabama ;  nor  anywhere  on  the  coast  as  in  Maine  and 
Massachusetts,  south  of  Long  Island.  But  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  regions  we  find  once  more  a  region  of  crumpling 
and  folding,  and  here  again  begin  to  appear  the  eruptive  and 
metamorphic  rocks.  These  mountains,  as  is  well  known,  enter 
the  United  States  in  Idaho  and  western  Montana,  and  cross  it 
in  a  southeasterly  direction,  passing  through  Wyoming,  central 
Colorado,  New  Mexico,  and  thence  into  Mexico  proper.  The 
core,  as  we  may  say,  of  this  range  is  largely  granitic,  sometimes 
of  a  red  color  and  very  coarsely  crystalline,  as  may  be  seen 
where  the  Union  Pacific  railroad  crosses  it  at  Sherman,  Wy- 
oming. From  here  westward  to  the  Pacific  Slope  occur  gran- 
itic and  trappean  rocks  innumerable,  and  undoubtedly  many 
beds  of  fine  marble  and  possibly  slate.  The  regions  are  as  yet 
too  difficult  of  access,  and  cost  of  transportation  too  high  ; 
hence  but  little  exploration  for  such  materials  has  been  actively 
carried  on.  The  writer  has  seen  very  promising  samples  of 
marbles  from  Colorado  and  Wyoming,  and  doubtless  other 
States  are  equally  well  provided.  California  has  its  Sierra 
Nevada,  Cascade  and  Coast  ranges,  and  with  them  granites  and 
marbles  of  excellent  quality.  In  this  great  western  area  are 
also  immense  developments  of  later  volcanic  rocks,  or  lavas, 
including  basalts,  andesites  and  liparites,  which  although  in  no 
case  suitable  for  ornamental  work,  are  comparatively  light,  soft, 
easily  cut,  as  well  as  very  durable. 

In  order  to  still  further  illustrate  this  distribution  and  the 
consequent  resources  of  the  various  States,  the  following  table 
is  given.  Only  those  stones  are  mentioned  which  it  seems  safe 
to  assume  occur  in  such  quantities  or  under  such  conditions  as 
to  render  them  of  present  or  prospective  value  for  the  purposes 
under  discussion.  For  the  purposes  of  easy  reference  the  States 
are  arranged  alphabetically,  an  arrangement  which  is  followed 
out  in  the  descriptions  of  the  quarry  regions  in  Part  II.  A 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  1 5 

name  in  italics  indicates  that  the  stone  is,  or  has  been  actively 
quarried  within  a  comparatively  recent  period. 

State  or  Territory.  Present  and  Prospective  Resources. 

Alabama Marble,  limestone,  granite,  sandstone. 

Arizona Onyx  marble,  limestone,  granite,  trappean  and  volcanic 

rocks,  and  sandstones. 

Arkansas Marble,  limestone,  syenite. 

California Serpentine  (verdantique  marble),  onyx  marble,  marble,  lime- 
stone, granite,  volcanic  rocks  and  tuffs,  sandstone,  slate. 

Colorado Marble,  limestone,  granite,  trappean  and  volcanic  rocks, 

sandstone,  quartzite,  rhyolite  tuff. 

Connecticut Soapstone,  serpentine  (verdantique  marble),  marble,  gran- 
ite and  gneiss,  diabase,  sandstone. 

Delaware Marble,  gneiss. 

Florida Shell  and  oolitic  limestone. 

Georgia Marble,  granite,  gneiss,  sandstone,  slate. 

Idaho  ., Limestone,  marble,  granite,  trappean  and  volcanic  rocks, 

sandstone. 

Illinois Limestone  and  dolomite,  sandstone. 

Indiana Limestone  and  dolomite,  sandstone. 

Indian  Territory. ..  Limestone,  dolomite,  sandstone. 

Iowa Gypsum,  limestone,  dolomite,  sandstone. 

Kansas Limestone,  dolomite,  sandstone. 

Kentucky Limestone,  dolomite,  sandstone. 

Louisiana Limestone,  sandstone. 

Maine Soapstone,  serpentine  (verdantique  marble),  limestone, 

granite,  gneiss,  diabase,  norite,  gabbro,  quartz  porphyry, 
sandstone,  slate. 

Maryland Soapstone,  serpentine  (verdantique  marble),  marble,  granite, 

sandstone,  slate. 

Massachusetts Soapstone,  serpentine  (verdantique  marble)  marble,  granite, 

gneiss,  quartz  porphyry. 

Michigan Limestone,  dolomite,  granite,  gneiss,  sandstone,  slate. 

Minnesota Limestone,  dolomite,  granite,  gneiss,  sandstone,  slate. 

Mississippi Limestone,  sandstone. 

Missouri . .  .Limestone,  dolomite,  granite,  diabase,  quartz  porphyry,  sand- 
stone. 

Montana Limestone,  dolomite,  granite,  gneiss,  trappean  and  volcanic 

rocks,  sandstone. 

Nebraska Limestone,  dolomite,  sandstone. 


16  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

State  or  Territory.  Present  and  Prospective  Resources. 

Nevada Limestone,  dolomite,  granite,  trappean  and  volcanic  rocks, 

sandstone. 

New  Hampshire. .  .Soapstone,  limestone,  granite,  slate. 

New  Jersey Serpentine,  limestone,  dolomite,  marble,  granite,  gneiss, 

diabase,  sandstone,  slate. 

New  Mexico Serpentine  (riccolite)  limestone,  marble,  trappean  and  vol- 
canic rocks,  sandstone,  granite. 

New  York Soapstone,  serpentine  (verdantique  marble},  limestone,  dolo- 
mite, marble,  granite,  gneiss,  norite,  sandstone,  slate. 

North  Carolina. . .  .Soapstone,  serpentine,  limestone,  dolomite,  marble, granite, 
gneiss,  diabase,  norite,  sandstone. 

North  Dakota Limestone,  dolomite,  sandstone. 

Ohio Limestone,  dolomite,  sandstone. 

Oklahoma Limestone,  dolomite,  sandstone. 

Oregon Limestone,  dolomite,  granite,  trappean  and  volcanic  rocks, 

sandstone. 

Pennsylvania Soapstone,  serpentine,  limestone,  dolomite,  marble,  granite, 

gneiss,  diabase,  quartz  porphyry,  sandstone,  conglomerate, 
slate. 

Rhode  Island Limestone,  dolomite,  granite,  gneiss. 

South  Carolina Limestone,  granite,  gneiss. 

South   Dakota Limestone,  sandstone,  quartzite. 

Tennessee Limestone,  marble,  granite,  diorite,  sandstone. 

Texas Limestone,  marble,  granite,  trappean  and  volcanic  rocks, 

sandstone. 

Utah.. Limestone,  marble,  granite,  trappean  and  volcanic  rocks, 

sandstone. 

Vermont Soapstone,  serpentine  (verdantique  marble)  marble,  granite, 

gneiss,  slate. 

Virginia Soapstone,  limestone,  marble,  granite,  gneiss,  diabase,  sand- 
stone, slate. 

Washington Limestone,  marble,  granite,  trappean  and  volcanic  rocks, 

sandstone. 

West  Virginia Limestone,  sandstone. 

Wisconsin Dolomite,  granite,  gneiss,  quartz  porphyry,  sandstone. 

Wyoming Limestone,  granite,  trappean  and  volcanic  rocks,  sandstone. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  I/ 


THE  MINERALS  OF   BUILDING  STONES. 

A  rock  is  a  mineral  aggregate  ;  more  than  this,  it  is  an 
essential  portion  of  the  earth's  crust,  a  geological  body  occu- 
pying a  more  or  less  well  defined  position  in  the  structure 
of  the  earth,  either  in  the  form  of  stratified  beds,  eruptive 
masses,  sheets  or  dykes,  or  as  veins  •  and  other  chemical  de- 
posits of  comparatively  little  importance  as  regards  size  and 
extent. 

To  fully  comprehend,  therefore,  what  is  to  be  said  on  the 
subject  of  rocks,  one  must  begin  with  a  consideration  of  the 
minerals  of  which  they  are  made  up.  As  a  rule  the  number 
of  mineral  species  constituting  any  essential  portion  of  a  rock 
is  very  small,  seldom  exceeding  three  or  four.  In  common 
limestone  the  only  essential  constituent  is  the  mineral  calcite  ; 
granite,  on  the  other  hand,  is  almost  invariably  composed  of 
minerals  of  at  least  three  independent  species.  Upon  the 
character  of  these,  and  the  amount  of  their  cohesion,  is  de- 
pendent to  a  very  considerable  extent,  the  suitability  or  desir- 
ability of  any  stone  for  architectural  purposes.  Microscopic 
examination  will  usually  result  in  increasing  the  apparent  num- 
ber of  mineral  species,  and  it  not  infrequently  happens  that 
those  present,  even  in  minute  quantities,  are  of  great  economic 
importance. 

In  the  arrangement  here  adopted  rock-forming  minerals  are 
divided  into  four  classes  :  (i)  Essential  ;  (2)  accessory  ;  (3)  ori- 
ginal ;  (4)  secondary. 

(i)  The  essential  minerals  are  those  which  form  the  chief 
constituents  of  any  rock,  and  which  may  be  regarded  as  char- 
acteristic of  any  particular  variety;  e.g.,  quartz  is  an  essential 
constituent  of  granite ;  without  the  quartz  the  rock  becomes  a 
syenite. 


18  -STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

(2)  The  accessory  minerals  are  those  which,  though  usually 
present,  are  of  such  minor  importance  that  their  absence  does 
not  materially  effect  the  character  of  the  rock;  e.g.,  mica, 
hornblende,  apatite,  or  magnetite,  are  nearly  always  present  in 
granite,  yet  a  rock  in  which  any  or  all  of  these  are  lacking  may 
still  be  classed  as  a  granite.     The  accessory  mineral  which  pre- 
dominates is  called,  the  characterizing  accessory  and  gives  its 
name  to  the  rock.     Thus  a  biotite  granite  is  one  in  which  the 
accessory  mineral  biotite  prevails. 

(3)  The  original  constituents  of  a  rock  are  those  which 
formed  upon  its  first  consolidation.     All  the  essential  constitu- 
ents are  original,  but  all  the  original  constituents  are  not  neces- 
sarily essential.     Thus,   in  granite,  quartz   and  orthoclase  are 
both  original  and  essential,  while  beryl   and  sphene,  though 
original,  are  not  essential. 

(4)  Secondary  constituents  are   those   which    result    from 
subsequent  changes  in  a  rock,  changes  due  usually  to  the  chem- 
ical action  of  percolating  water.     Such  are  the  calcite,  chalce- 
dony, quartz,  and  zeolite  deposits  which  form  in  the  drusyand 
amygdaloidal  cavities  of  traps  and  other  rocks. 

In  the  list  on  the  following  page  is  included  all  those 
minerals  which  ordinarily  occur  in  such  of  our  rocks  as  are 
used  for  building  or  ornamental  purposes.  In  the  first  column 
are  given  those  which  compose  any  appreciable  part  of  the 
rocks,  and  anyone  of  which  may  at  times  become  the  principal 
ingredient  or  characterizing  accessory.  The  second  column 
contains  those  which,  if  present  at  all,  occur  only  in  small 
quantities. 

As  these  are  all  fully  described  in  the  numerous  works  on 
mineralogy  it  is  not  deemed  necessary  to  enter  into  any  elab- 
orate discussion  of  their  properties  here,  excepting  in  the  case 
of  those  few  which  from  their  abundance,  or  from  other  causes, 
have  a  pronounced  effect  upon  the  rocks  in  which  they  occur. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 


i.  Quartz. 

ELEMENTS. 

2.   Feldspar. 

Carbon. 

Orthoclase. 

Graphite. 

Microcline. 

SULPHIDES. 

Albite.                1 

Galenite. 

Anorthite. 

Sphalerite. 

Labradorite,       \  Plagioclase 

Pyrite. 

Andesite. 

Marcasite. 

Oligoclase.        J 

CHLORIDES. 

3.  Mica. 

Halite  (common  salt). 

Muscovite. 

FLUORIDES. 

Biotite. 

Fluorite  (fluor  spar). 

Phlogopite. 

OXIDES. 

Lepidomelane  or  Annite. 

Tridymite. 

4.  Amphibole. 

Hematite  (specular  iron). 

Tremolite. 

Menaccanite  (titanic  iron). 

Actinolite. 

Magnetite  (magnetic  iron). 

Common  hornblende. 

Chromite  (chromic  iron). 

5.   Pyroxene. 

Limonite  (hydrous  iron  oxide). 

Malacolite. 

Rutile. 

Sahlite. 

ANHYDROUS  SILICATES. 

Augite. 

Acmite. 

Diallage. 

Beryl. 

Enstatite. 

Danalite. 

Hypersthene, 

Garnet. 

6.  Olivine. 

Zircon. 

7.   Epidote. 

Zoisite. 

8.   Elaeolite  [Nepheline]. 

Allanite. 

9.  Calcite. 

Scapolite. 

10.  Aragonite. 

Sodalite 

ii.   Dolomite. 

Tourmaline  (shorl). 

12.   Gypsum. 

Titanite  (sphene). 

13.  Serpentine. 

HYDROUS  SILICATES. 

14.   Talc. 

Laumontite. 

15.  Chlorite. 

Natrolite. 

Analcite. 

Chabazite. 

Stilbite. 

Kaolin. 

PHOSPHATES. 

Apatite. 

CARBONATES. 

Ankerite. 

_^ 

Siderite.    . 

2O  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

QUARTZ. — Composition:     Pure  silica,  SiO2.     Hardness,  7.* 

This  is  one  of  the  commonest  minerals  of  the  earth's  crust, 
and  is  an  essential  constituent  of  granite,  gneiss,  mica  schist, 
quartz  porphyry,  liparite,  quartzite,  and  ordinary  sandstoney 
occuring  in  the  form  of  crystals,  crystalline  grains,  and  frag- 
ments of  crystals.  It  is  usually  easily  recognized  by  its  clear,, 
colorless  appearance,  irregular,  glass-like  fracture,  hardness,  and 
entire  insolubility  in  acids.  Its  hardness  is  such  that  it 
scratches  glass,  and  in  this  respect  alone  it  differs  from  any 
other  of  the  essential  constituents.  It  is,  however,  brittle,  and 
hence,  though  the  hardest  mineral,  is  by  no  means  the  most 
refractory  ;  stones  like  granite,  which  are  rich  in  quartz,  work- 
ing more  easily  than  the  trap-rocks,  in  which  it  is,  as  a  rule, 
quite  lacking. 

Although  ordinarily  one  of  the  most  indestructible  of  min- 
erals, and  infusible  in  the  hottest  flame  of  the  blow-pipe,  yet 
highly  quartzose  rocks  like  granite  are  by  no  means  fire-proof, 
but  scale  badly  when  subjected  to  the  heat  of  a  burning  build- 
ing. This  peculiar  susceptibility  of  the  rock  to  heat  is  thought 
by  some  to  be  due  to  the  microscopic  fluidal  cavities  which 
exist  in  the  quartz,  and  which  are  at  times  exceeding  abundant. 


*  For  convenience  in  determining  minerals  the  "  scale  of  hardness  "  given 
below  has  been  adopted  by  mineralogists.  By  means  of  it  one  is  enabled  to 
designate  the  comparative  hardness  of  minerals  with  ease  and  definiteness. 
Thus,  in  saying  that  serpentine  has  a  hardness  equal  to  4  is  meant  that  it  is  of 
the  same  hardness  as  the  mineral  fluorite,  and  can  therefore  be  cut  with  a  knife, 
but  less  readily  than  calcite  or  marble. 

1.  Talc. — Easily  scratched  with  the  thumb-nail. 

2.  Gypsum. — Can  be  scratched  by  the  thumb-nail. 

3.  Calcite. — Not  readily  scratched  by  the  thumb-nail,  but  easily  cut  with  a 
knife. 

4.  Fluorite. — Can  be  cut  with  a  knife,  but  less  easily  than  calcite. 

5.  Apatite. — Can  be  cut  with  a  knife,  but  only  with  difficulty. 

6.  Orthocla se  feldspar. — Can  be  cut  with  a  knife   only  with   great  difficulty 
and  on  thin  edges. 

7.  Quartz. — Cannot  be  cut  with  a  knife  ;  scratches  glass. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  21 

THE  FELDSPARS.      Hardness,  5  to  7. 

The  feldspars  are  essentially  silicates  containing  alumina 
together  with  potash,  soda,  or  lime.  There  are  six  varieties 
that  are  common  constituents  of  building  stones,  viz.,  ortho- 
clase,  microcline,  albite,  oligoclase,  labradorite,  and  anorthite. 
Of  these,  albite,  oligoclase,  labradorite,  and  anorthite  are  usu- 
ally indistinguishable  from  one  another  by  the  eye  alone, 
especially  in  fine-grained  rocks,  and  are  therefore  designated 
by  the  convenient  term  plagioclase  feldspars  or  simply  plagio- 
clasc.  Orthoclase  is  the  prevailing  feldspar  and  most  important 
constituent  in  granites  and  gneisses,  and  is  usually  accompan- 
ied by  albite  or  oligoclase,  or  frequently  microcline.  Anorthite 
and  labradorite  are  equally  important  constituents  of  basic 
eruptive  rocks,  such  as  diabase,  basalt,  and  andesite. 

The  physical  condition  of  the  feldspar  in  a  building  stone  is 
a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance.  In  those  rocks  which 
withstand  the  effect  of  the  weather  through  long  periods  of 
years  without  change  or  disintegration,  the  feldspars,  if  ex- 
amined with  a  microscope,  will  be  found  hard,  compact,  and 
fresh,  containing  but  few  cavities  or  impurities.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  feldspars  of  many  rocks,  if  thus  examined,  will  be 
found  filled  with  minute  cavities  and  flaws,  which  are  often  so 
filled  with  impurities  and  products  of  decomposition  as  to  be 
quite  opaque  (Hawes).  Such  rocks  will  not  for  any  length  of 
time  withstand  the  weather,  since  infiltrating  waters  containing 
minute  quantities  of  carbonic  and  other  acids,  aided  by  heat 
and  frost,  can  not  fail  to  produce  the  dire  result  of  disinte- 
gration. 

The  feldspars  have  also  an  important  influence  upon  the 
cutting  of  a  stone.  The  hardness  and  toughness  of  many 
granites  and  other  crystalline  siliceous  rocks  are  due,  not  to  the 
hard  and  brittle  quartz,  but  to  the  feldspathic  constituent, 
which  is  quite  variable.  The  soft  granites  consist  of  the  same 


22  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

constituents,  but  the  feldspars  are  porous  and  therefore  offer 
less  resistance  to  the  cutting  tool.  The  feldspars  also  possess  a 
distinct  cleavage,  that  is,  they  split  or  cleave  in  one  or  two 
directions  much  more  readily  than  in  others.  It,  therefore, 
sometimes  happens,  especially  in  coarse-grained  and  por- 
phyritic  rocks,  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  obtain  the  perfect 
surface  necessary  for  polishing,  since  little  particles  of  the  feld- 
spars are  constantly  splitting  out,  leaving  small  cavities  or 
"  nicks." 

The  color  of  a  rock  frequently  depends  largely  upon  its  feld- 
spathic  constituent.  If  the  feldspar  be  clear,  transparent,  and 
glassy,  the  light  enters  it  and  is  absorbed,  giving  to  the  stone 
a  dark  color,  as  is  the  case  witlrthe  Quincy  granites  and  many 
quartz  porphyries  and  diabases.  If  the  feldspar  is  soft  and 
porous,  the  light  is  reflected  from  the  surface  and  the  rock 
appears  white.  In  all  the  pink  and  red  granites  and  gneisses 
the  color  is  due  to  the  pink  and  red  orthoclase  they  contain. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  the  orthoclase  and  plagioclase 
— when  both  are  present  in  the  same  rock — are  differently 
colored,  the  orthoclase  being  pink  or  red,  while  the  plagioclase 
is  nearly  white. 

THE  MICAS.     Hardness  2.5  to  3. 

Two  kinds  of  mica  occur  as  prominent  constituents  of  build- 
ing stones,  especially  the  granites  and  gneisses.  These  are 
black  mica  or  biotite,  and  white  mica  or  muscovite.  Both 
kinds  occur  in  small  shining  scales  which  are  sometimes 
hexagonal  in  outline,  though  more  frequently  of  quite  irregular 
form. 

The  composition  of  the  micas  is  complex,  but  the  black 
variety  is  essentially  a  silicate  of  iron,  alumina,  magnesia,  and 
potash,  while  the  white  variety  is  a  silicate  of  alumina  and  pot- 
ash with  small  amounts  of  iron,  soda,  magnesia,  and  water. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  2$ 

Other  micas  common  in  such  stone  as  are  used  for  building 
are  lepidomelane  and  phlogopite.  The  first  of  these  is  black 
in  color  and  closely  resembles  biotite,  from  which  it  differs  in 
containing  smaller  proportions  of  the  protoxide  of  iron  and  in 
the  folia  being  opaque  and  inelastic.  For  all  practical  purposes 
this  mica  is,  however,  identical  with  biotite,  and  no  distinc- 
tion has  been  attempted  in  the  present  work.  Phlogopite  is 
more  nearly  colorless,  like  muscovite,  from  which  it  can  often 
be  distinguished  only  with  difficulty.  It  is  a  common  con- 
stituent of  many  limestones,  dolomites,  and  serpentinous 
rocks. 

The  kind,  amount,  and  disposition  of  mica  in  a  building 
stone  has  a  .very  important  bearing  upon  its  working  and 
weathering  qualities  as  well  as  general  fitness  for  architectural 
purposes.  If  it  occurs  in  any  abundance  and  the  folia  are 
arranged  in  parallel  layers  the  rock  splits  much  more  readily 
in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  mica  laminae  than  in  that  at  right 
angles  to  them.  Mica  is  itself  moreover  "  soft  and  fissile,  and 
hence  is  an  element  of  weakness."  It  also  receives  a  polish 
only  with  difficulty  and  which  is  soon  lost  upon  exposure  to 
the  weather.  Black  mica,  moreover,  owing  to  its  large  percent- 
age of  iron,  is  liable  to  succumb  to  atmospheric  agencies.* 

The  finest  grades  of  building  stone  should  contain  mica  only 
in  small  flakes  evenly  distributed  throughout  the  mass  of  the 
rock. 

From  the  marked  contrast  in  color  of  the  two  micas  it  follows 


*  Dr.  P.  Schweitzer  while  studying  the  superficial  decomposition  of  the 
gneiss  of  New  York  Island,  discovered  that  the  black  mica,  after  getting  first 
coated  with  a  brown  film  of  oxide  of  iron,  "  rapidly  disintegrated  and  dis- 
appeared," while  the  white  mica  possessing  greater  powers  of  endurance  re- 
mains fresh  and  intact. — Chem.  News,  IV.,  1874,  p.  444. 

The  same  phenomena  may  be  noticed  in  the  mica  schists  about  Washing- 
ton,  D.  C. 


24  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

that  they  have  a  decided  influence  upon  the  color  of  the  rock 
containing  them.  Folia  of  black  mica  in  any  abundance 
naturally  give  the  rock  a  dark-gray  hue,  while  the  white  mica, 
being  nearly  colorless,  has  a  neutral  effect.  Hence,  other 
things  being  equal,  muscovite  granites  are  much  lighter  in 
color  than  those  in  which  biotite  is  the  characterizing  access- 
ory. 

AMPHIBOLE.     Hornblende.      Hardness  5  to  6. 

Two  principal  varieties  of  this  mineral  are  recognized  :  (i) 
The  non-aluminous,  including  the  white,  gray,  and  pale  green, 
often  fibrous  forms  as  tremolite,  actinolite  and  asbestus,  and 
(2)  the  aluminous,  which  includes  the  dark-green,  brown,  and 
black  varieties.  The  aluminous  variety,  common  hornblende, 
is  an  original  and  essential  constituent  of  diorite,  and  of  many 
varieties  of  granite,  gneiss,  syenite,  schist,  andesite  and  trachyte, 
and  is  also  present  as  a  secondary  constituent  in  many  rocks, 
resulting  from  a  molecular  alteration  of  the  augite.  The 
non-aluminous  varieties  occur  in  gneiss,  crystalline  limestone, 
and  other  metamorphic  rocks. 

The  hornblende  in  such  rocks  as  are  used  for  building  pur- 
poses can  be  readily  recognized  by  its  dark-green  or  almost 
black  color  and  the  compactness  and  tenacity  of  its  crystals 
which  are  not  easily  separable  into  thin  leaves  or  folia  as  is 
black  mica,  with  which  it  might  otherwise  be  confounded. 
Hornblende  acquires  readily  a  good  and  lasting  polish  and  as 
the  mineral  itself  is  strong  and  durable,  its  presence  in  a  rock 
is  thought  to  be  preferable  to  that  of  mica. 

THE  PYROXENES.     Hardness  5  to  6. 

Two  principal  varieties  of  this  mineral  are  recognized, 
as  with  the  amphiboles,  (i)  the  non-aluminous,  including  the 
light-colored  varieties  malacolite,  sahlite,  and  diallage,  and  (2) 
the  aluminous,  including  the  dark  variety,  augite. 


STOKES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  2$ 

The  lighter-colored  non-aluminous  varieties,  malacolite  and 
sahlite,  are  common  in  mica  and  hornblendic  schists,  gneiss,  and 
granite,  though  seldom  in  sufficient  abundance  to  be  noticeable 
to  the  naked  eye.  The  foliated  variety,  diallage,  is  an  essential 
constituent  of  the  rock  gabbro,  and  is  also  common  in  serpen- 
tine. The  darker  colored  aluminous  variety,  augite,  is  an  essen- 
tial constituent  of  diabase  and  basalt,  and  also  occurs  in  many 
syenites,  andesites,  and  other  eruptive  rocks. 

In  such  rocks  as  are  used  for  building  purposes  the  pyroxene 
cannot  usually  be  distinguished  by  the  unaided  eye  from  horn- 
blende. With  the  exception  of  the  Quincy  granites  and  the  New 
Castle,  Delaware,  gneisses,  pyroxenes  do  not  occur  in  any  of 
our  granitic  rocks  now  quarried,  but  in  the  diabases  and  basalts 
the  augite  is  a  very  important  constituent.  It  is  usually  a 
compact  and  tough  yellowish-green  or  nearly  black  mineral, 
and,  like  hornblende,  readily  acquires  a  good  and  lasting  polish. 
The  pyroxene  of  the  Quincy  granite,  however,  proves  an 
exceptionally  brittle  variety,  and  the  continual  breaking  away 
of  little  pieces  during  the  process  of  dressing  the  stone  makes 
the  production  of  a  perfectly  smooth  surface  a  matter  of  great 
difficulty. 

CALCITE.     Calc-spar.     Composition:    Calcium    carbonate,    CaCo3  —  carbon 
dioxide,  44  per  cent. ;    lime  56  per  cent.      Hardness  3. 

This  is  an  original  constituent  of  many  rocks,  such  as  lime- 
stone, ophiolite,  and  calcareous  shale,  and  is  the  essential  con- 
stituent of  most  marbles,  of  stalactites,  travertine,  and  calc- 
sinter.  It  also  occurs  as  a  secondary  constituent  resulting  from 
the  decomposition  of  other  minerals,  filling  wholly,  or  in  part, 
cavities  in  rocks  of  all  ages,  such  as  granite,  gneiss,  syenite, 
diabase,  diorite,  liparite,  trachyte,  andesite,  and  basalt. 

Calcite  when  pure  is  white  in  color,  and  soft  enough  to  be 
be  cut  with  a  knife.  It  can  be  readily  distinguished  from  other 


26  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

minerals,  excepting  aragonite,  by  its  brisk  effervescence  when 
treated  with  a  dilute  acid. 

ARAGONITE. — Composition:  Same  as  calcite.     Hardness,  3.5  to  4. 

This  mineral  has  the  san.c  chemical  composition  as  calcite, 
but  differs  in  its  crystalline  form  and  specific  gravity.  It  some- 
times occurs  in  deposits  of  sufficient  extent  to  be  quarried  as 
marble.  The  beautiful  "  onyx  marble  "  of  San  Luis  Obispo  is 
nearly  pure  aragonite. 

DOIiOJVTTE. — Composition:  (CaMg)  CO3  =  Calcium  carbonate,  54.35  percent.; 
magnesium  carbonate,  45.65  per  cent.  Hardness,  3.2  to  4. 

This  mineral  closely  resembles  calcite,  but  can  be  readily 
distinguished  from  the  same  by  its  greater  hardness  and  from 
its  being  acted  upon  but  little,  if  at  all,  by  a  dilute  acid.  Like 
calcite,  it  frequently  occurs  in  compact  crystalline  massive  forms, 
and  is  quarried  for  building  material  or  for  making  lime.  Many 
of  our  marbles  are  dolomites,  as  for  instance  those  of  Cockeys- 
ville,  Maryland,  and  Pleasantville,  New  York. 

GYPSUM.  Calcium  Sulphate. — Composition  :  CaSo4  -\-  2aq  =  sulphur  tri- 
oxide,  46. 5  per  cent. ;  lime,  32.6  per  cent. ;  water,  20.9  per  cent.  Hardness,  2. 

Gypsum  rarely  occurs  in  crystalline  rocks,  but  forms  exten- 
sive beds  among  stratified  rocks  such  as  limestones  and  beds  of 
clay.  The  fine  translucent  variety  is  used  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses, and  is  known  as  alabaster.  It  is  soft  enough  to  be  readily 
cut  with  a  knife  or  scratched  with  the  thumb-nail,  and  is  not 
at  all  acted  on  by  acids.  It  is  therefore  readily  distinguished 
from  calcite,  which  it  somewhat  resembles. 

SERPENTINE.— Composition:  A  hydrous  silicate  of  magnesia,  Mg3Si2O7-{" 
2aq  —  silica,  43.48  per  cent. ;  magnesia,  43.48  per  cent. ;  water,  13.04  per  cent. 
Hardness,  4. 

This  mineral  occurs  mixed  with  calcite  or  dolomite,  forming 
the  so-called  verdantique  marble  or  ophiolite.  As  a  secondary 


J 

STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  2J 

product  it  is  sometimes  found  resulting  from  the  alteration  of 
olivine  and  other  magnesian  minerals  in  various  eruptive  rocks, 
such  as  basalt,  diabase,  and  the  peridotites.  It  often  occurs  in 
extensive  deposits,  usually  mixed  with  more  or  less  chromite, 
magnetite,  enstatite,  or  similar  minerals,  and  is  of  value  as  a 
building  or  ornamental  stone,  as  will  be  noticed  later. 

Serpentine  can  usually  be  recognized  by  its  green  or 
yellowish  color,  slightly  soapy  feeling,  lack  of  cleavage,  and 
softness,  it  being  readily  cut  with  a  knife.  It  is,  however,  not 
so  soft  as  talc,  with  which  it  might  possibly  be  confounded  by 
any  but  a  mineralogist. 

TALC.     Steatite. — Composition:  A  hydrous  silicate  of  magnesia  =  silica,  63.49 
per  cent. ;  magnesia,  31.75  per  cent.;  water,  4. 76  per  cent.     Hardness,  i. 

This  is  a  common  mineral,  occurring  as  an  essential  constit- 
uent of  talc  schist  or  as  an  alteration  product,  replacing  horn- 
blende, augite,  mica,  and  other  magnesian  minerals.  The 
common  form  is  that  of  small,  greenish,  inelastic  scales.  It 
often  occurs  massive,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of  soapstone, 
and  is  used  extensively  in  stoves  and  furnaces.  The  finely 
granular  crypto-crystalline  variety  is  known  as  French  chalk,  used 
by  tailors  and  others.  In  its  common  form  this  mineral  might 
be  mistaken  for  a  mica,  but  for  its  soapy  feeling  and  softness, 
which  is  such  that  it  can  be  readily  scratched  by  the  thumb-nail. 

OLIVINE.     Chrysolite.     Peridot. — Composition :  Silicate    of   iron  and  mag- 
nesia.    Hardness,  6  to  7. 

Olivine  is  an  essential  constituent  of  basalt,  and  the  perido- 
tites and  is  prominent  in  many  lavas,  diabases,  gabbros,  and 
other  igneous  rocks,  where  it  occurs  in  the  form  of  rounded 
blebs  of  a  bottle-green  color.  It  also  occurs  occasionally  in 
metamorphic  rocks  and  is  a  constituent  of  many  meteorites. 
Olivine  is  subject  to  extensive  alteration,  becoming  changed 


28  STONES  FOR   BUILDING   AND   DECORATION. 

into  serpentine.     Many  beds  of  serpentine  result  from  the  alter- 
ation of  olivine-bearing  rocks. 

GARNET. — Composition:  Variable;  essentially  a  silicate  of  alumina,  lime, 
iron,  or  magnesia.  Hardness,  6.5  to  7.5. 

This  mineral  is  an  abundant  accessory  in  mica  schist,  gneiss, 
granite,  crystalline  limestone,  occasionally  in  serpentine,  in 
liparite,  and  other  lavas. 

The  presence  of  garnets  in  stones  designed  for  finely  finished 
work  is  always  detrimental,  since,  owing  to  their  brittleness  and 
hardness,  they  break  away  from  the  matrix  in  the  process  of 
dressing  and  render  the  production  of  smooth  surfaces  a  matter 
of  difficulty.  Those  garnets  which  are  found  in  such  stone  as 
are  used  for  building  are  nearly  always  of  a  red  color  and 
rounded  form. 

EPIDOTE. — Composition:  Silica,  37.83  per  cent.;  alumina,  22.63  per  cent. ; 
iron  oxides,  15.98  per  cent.;  lime,  23.27  per  cent. ;  water,  2.05  per  cent. 
Hardness,  6  to  7. 

This  mineral  is  a  common  constituent  of  many  granites, 
gneisses,  and  schists,  especially  the  hornblendic  varieties.  It  is 
also  found  as  a  secondary  constituent  in  theamygdaloidal  cavi- 
ties of  many  trap  rocks,  and  is  readily  recognisable  from  its 
green  color.  Although  a  common  constituent  in  small  propor- 
tions of  many  rocks,  those  cases  in  which  it  is  sufficiently 
abundant  to  give  them  a  specific  character  are  extremely  rare. 
Certain  of  the  New  Hampshire  and  Massachusetts  granites  con- 
tain it  in  such  quantities  as  to  be  recognizable  as  greenish  specks 
on  a  polished  surface,  as  does  also  the  melaphyr  quarried  at 
Brighton,  in  the  latter  State. 

CHLORITE.     Viridite.— Hardness,  2  to  3. 

Under  the  general  name  chlorite  are  included  several  min- 
erals occurring  in  fibres  and  folia,  closely  resembling  the  micas, 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  29 

from  which  they  differ  in  their  large  percentage  of  water,  and 
in  their  folia  being  inelastic.  The  three  principal  varieties  rec- 
ognized are  ripidolite,  penninite,  and  prochlorite,  any  one  of 
which  may  occur  as  the  essential  constituent  of  a  chlorite 
schist.  Chlorite  as  a  secondary  product  often  results  from  and 
entirely  replaces  the  pyroxene,  hornblende,  or  mica  in  rocks  of 
various  kinds,  and  also  occurs  filling  wholly  or  in  part  the  amyg- 
daloidal  cavities  of  trap  rocks.  In  this  form  it  is  frequently 
visible  only  with  the  microscope,  and  owing  to  the  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  an  exact  determination  of  its  mineral  species  is  called 
viridite,  from  the  Latin  viridis,  green,  this  being  its  usual 
color.  The  characteristic  greenness  which  gave  the  name 
greenstone  to  the  diorites  and  diabases  is  due  in  large  part  to 
the  secondary  chlorite  contained  by  them. 

IRON  PYRITES.—  Composition  :  Iron  disulphide,   FeS2  =  sulphur,   53.3  per 
cent. ;  iron,  46.7  per  cent.     Hardness,  6  to  6.5. 

A  very  common  accessory  in  rocks  of  all  kinds  and  all  ages, 
usually  occurring  in  small  cubes  or  irregular  masses  of  a  brassy 
yellow  color. 

It  may  be  set  down  as  a  rule  that  rocks  containing  this 
mineral  should  not  be  used  for  ornamental  work  that  is  to  be 
exposed  to  the  weather,  since  it  is  very  liable  to  oxidation  in 
time,  staining  the  stone  and  perhaps  causing  the  more  serious 
result  of  disintegration.  This  form  of  the  iron  disulphide  is, 
however,  less  objectionable  than  that  known  asmarcasiteor  the 
gray  iron  pyrites.  For  some  unexplained  reason  this  form  of 
the  mineral  decomposes  even  more  readily  than  the  pyrite,  and 
hence  its  presence  is  always  objectionable  in  rocks  where  per- 
manency of  color  or  durability  is  desired. 

A  microscopic  study  of  pyrite-bearing  rocks  has  shown  that 
there  are  many  important  considerations  bearing  upon  the 
weathering  properties  of  this  mineral.  Thus  it  is  found,  as  in 


3O  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

many  of  the  Ohio  limestones  and  dolomites,  occurring  not  only 
in  well  defined  cubes  of  a  brass-yellow  color,  but  also  in  an 
amorphous  granular  condition  in  a  very  fine  state  of  subdivi- 
sion which  appears  almost  black  under  the  microscope.  Expe- 
rience has  shown  that  in  the  latter  form  it  is  much  more  liable 
to  oxidation  than  when  in  cubes,  and  hence  we  see  the 
necessity  of  a  microscopic  examination  of  a  stone  as  one  of  the 
guides  to  its  probable  weathering  qualities.  In  this  finely 
amorphous  condition  the  pyrite  is  stated  by  Hawes  to  have  an 
important  effect  upon  the  color  of  the  stone.  Thus  the  Spring- 
field and  Covington  (Ohio)  dolomites  present  in  different  layers 
two  well  defined  colors — a  blue  and  a  yellow.  An  examina- 
tion with  the  microscope  shows  that  they  differ  only  in  that  the 
blue  variety  contains  the  pyrite  in  the  finely  disseminated 
unoxidized  state,  while  in  the  yellow  it  has  become  changed 
into  the  hydrous  oxide.  This  change  having  taken  place  while 
the  stone  lies  in  the  quarry,  is  unaccompanied  by  results  of  a 
serious  nature,  unless  the  uniform  change  in  color  be  so  con- 
sidered. Had  the  change  taken  place  in  the  quarried  stone 
after  being  laid  in  the  walls  of  a  building,  the  results  would  in 
all  probability  have  proved  more  undesirable.  Pyrite  when 
i'mbedded  firmly  in  rocks  of  a  close,  compact  nature  is  less  liable 
to  oxidation  that  when  contained  in  one  of  a  loose  and  porous 
texture.  In  the  magnesian  limestones  of  Dayton,  Ohio,  the 
microscope  reveals  many  minute  cubes  of  pyrite  which  are  im- 
bedded so  firmly  in  its  mass  as  to  be  not  at  all  deleterious, 
since  beyond  the  reach  of  atmospheric  agencies.  In  many 
close-textured  rocks,  as  the  slates,  pyrite  is  proverbially  long- 
lived,  and  hence  as  a  rule  we  can  only  regard  it  with  suspicion, 
as  an  ingredient  whose  presence  can  result  in  little  that  is  good 
and  perhaps  a  great  deal  that  is  bad.  It  should  be  noted  that 
pyrite  on  decomposing,  may  give  rise  to  sulphates  and  perhaps 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  3! 

to  free  sulphuric  acid,  which  in  themselves  aid  in  the  work  of 
disintegration. 

"  In  limestones  or  dolomites  the  presence  of  iron  pyrites 
operates  disastrously  ;  for,  if  magnesia  be  present,  the  sulphuric 
acid  from  the  decomposing  iron  pyrites  produces  a  soluble 
efflorescent  salt,  which  exudes  to  the  surface  and  forms  white 
patches,  which  are  alternately  washed  off  and  replaced,  but 
leaving  a  whitened  surface  probably  from  the  presence  of  sul- 
phate of  lime.  If  the  limestone  be  entirely  calcareous,  the  salt 
formed  (a  sulphate  of  lime)  is  insoluble,  and  therefore  produces 
less  obvious  results.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  lime  of  which 
the  mortar  or  cement  is  made  may  contain  magnesia,  and  the 
decomposition  of  the  iron  pyrites  in  the  adjacent  stone  pro- 
duces an  efflorescent  salt  which  exudes  from  the  joints.  This 
condition  is  not  unfrequently  observed  in  buildings  constructed 
of  the  bluestone  of  the  Hudson  River  group.  As  an  example, 
we  may  notice  the  efflorescent  patches  proceeding  from  some 
of  the  joints  between  the  stones  of  St.  Peter's  Church,  on  State 
street,  in  Albany. "* 

MAGNETITE.      Magnetic    Iron    Ore. — Composition:     FeO-j-Fe2O3  =  iron 
sesquioxide,  68.97  per  cent.;  iron. protoxide,  31.03  per  cent.     Hardness,  5.5 

to  6.8. 

This  occurs  as  an  original  constitutent  in  may  schists  and 
granites ;  in  the  latter  usually  in  minute  crystals  visible  only 
with  the  microscope.  It  is  almost  invariably  present  in  igne- 
ous rocks  such  as  diorite,  diabase,  and  basalt.  When  present 
in  considerable  quantities  it  sometimes  becomes  converted 

*  Hall,  Report  on  Building  Stone,  p.  50.  The  white  efflorescence  so  fre- 
quently seen  on  stone  and  brick  buildings,  seems,  according  to  good  authorities, 
to  be,  in  most  cases,  due  to  the  mortar  in  which  the  stone  is  laid,  and  is  not  an 
inherent  quality  of  the  stone  itself.  The  subject  is,  therefore,  not  more  fully 
dwelt  upon  in  the  present  work. 


32  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

entirely  into  the  sesquioxide  of  iron  through  taking  oxygen 
from  the  atmosphere.  It  then  stains  the  rock  a  rusty  red  color, 
as  is  observable  in  many  diabases. 

HEMATITE.     Specular  Iron  Ore. — Chemical   composition:    Anhydrous  ses- 
quioxide of  iron,  Fe2O3  =  iron,  70.9  per  cent.;  oxygen,  30.20  per  cent. 

This  mineral  occurs  in  varying  proportions  in  rocks  of  all 
ages.  In  granite  its  usual  form  is  that  of  minute  scales  of  a 
blood-red  color.  In  an  amorphous  condition  it  often  forms  the 
cementing  material  of  sandstones,  when  it  imparts  to  them  a 
red  or  reddish-brown  color.  This  form  of  iron  oxide  is,  how- 
ever, less  common  as  a  cementing  substance  than  the  hydrous 
sesquioxides  turgite  and  limonite,  which  are  the  forms  occur- 
ring in  the  Triassic  sandstones  of  the  eastern  United  States.* 


THE  PHYSICAL  AND   CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES   OF 
BUILDING  STONE. 

The  physical  properties  of  a  rock — the  manner  in  which  its 
various  constituents  are  grouped  together — is  a  matter  of  per- 
haps even  greater  importance  than  is  the  character  of  the 
minerals  themselves.  This  will  become  more  plainly  evident 
as  we  proceed.  We  will  therefore  devote  a  few  pages  here  to 
a  consideration  of  those  properties  of  rocks  which  may  be 
grouped  under  the  heads  of  density,  hardness  and  structure, 
together  with  notes  on  their  color  and  chemical  composition. 

(l)   DENSITY   AND   HARDNESS. 

Density. — This  is  an  important  property,  since  upon  it  are 
dependent  to  a  large  extent  the  weight  per  cubic  foot,  the 
strength,  and  the  absorptive  powers  of  the  stone.  Among 

*  Julien,  Proceedings  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science, 

1888. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  33 

rocks  of  the  same  mineral  composition,  those  which  are  the 
densest  will  be  found  heaviest,  least  absorptive,  and  usually  the 
strongest. 

To  ascertain  the  weight  of  a  rock  it  is  customary  to  com- 
pare its  weight  with  that  of  an  equal  bulk  of  distilled  water,  in 
other  words  to  ascertain  its  specific  gravity.  The  specific  gravity 
multiplied  by  62.5  pounds  (the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water) 
will  thus  give  the  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  stone.  The  weights 
given  in  the  tables  have  been  thus  computed.  (See  p.  404.) 

Hardness. — The  apparent  hardness  of  a  rock  is  dependent 
upon  (i)  the  hardness  of  its  component  minerals  and  (2)  their 
state  of  aggregation.  However  hard  the  minerals  of  a  rock 
may  be,  it  appears  soft  and  works  readily  if  the  particles  adhere 
with  slight  tenacity.  Many  of  the  softest  sandstones  are  com- 
posed of  the  hard  mineral  quartz,  but  the  grains  fall  apart  so 
readily  that  the  stone  is  as  a  whole  soft.  (See  under  State  of 
Aggregation.) 

(2)   STRUCTURE. 

Under  this  head  are  considered  those  characters  of  rocks 
which  are  dependent  upon  the  form,  size,  and  arrangement  of 
their  component  minerals. 

All  rocks  maybe  classified  sufficiently  close  for  present  pur- 
poses under  one  of  the  three  heads  (i)  crystalline,  (2)  vitreous 
or  glassy,  and  (3)  fragmental.  Of  the  first,  granite  and  cry- 
stalline limestone  may  be  considered  as  types  ;  of  the  second, 
obsidian  and  pitchstone,  and  of  the  third,  sandstone.  Many 
structural  properties  are  common  to  all,  others  are  confined  to 
rocks  of  a  single  type.  Accordingly  as  the  structure  is  or  is 
not  readily  recognizable  by  the  unaided  eye,  we  have  : 

(i)  Macroscopic  structure,  or  structure  which  is  distinguish- 
able in  the  hand  specimen  and  without  the  aid  of  a  microscope. — 
Under  this  head  are  comprehended  structures  designated  by 


34  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

such  names  as  granular,  massive,  stratified,  foliated,  porphyritic, 
concretionary,  etc.;  terms  the  precise  meaning  of  which  is  given 
in  the  glossary,  and  which,  with  perhaps  one  or  two  exceptions 
need  not  be  further  considered  here  ;  and 

(2)  Microscopic  structures. — Many  rocks  are  so  fine  grained 
and  compact  that  nothing  of  their  mineral  nature  or  structure 
can  be  learned  from  study  with  the  eye  alone,  and  recourse 
must  be  had  to  the  microscope.  In  such  cases  it  is  customary 
among  lithologists  to  grind  a  small  chip  of  the  rock  so  thin  as 
to  be  transparent,  and  then,  when  properly  mounted  in  Canada 
balsam,  to  submit  it  to  microscopic  study.  By  this  method 
many  important  points  of  structure  and  composition  are 
brought  out  that  would  otherwise  be  unattainable.  The  phy- 
sical condition  of  the  minerals  of  a  rock,  their  freedom  from 
decomposition,  and  methods  of  arrangement  can  often  only  be 
ascertained  by  this  method.  By  it  the  presence  of  many 
minute  and  perhaps  important  constituents  is  made  known,  the 
presence  of  which  would  otherwise  be  unsuspected.  This  sub- 
ject is  further  treated  under  the  head  of  Rock-forming  Minerals 
and  the  descriptions  of  the  various  kinds  of  rocks. 

In  Fig.  i  of  PL  1 1  is  shown  the  structure  of  the  muscovite 
biotite  granite  of  Hallowell,  Maine,  drawn  as  are  the  other  fig- 
ures on  this  plate  from  thin  sections  and  under  a  magnifying 
power  of  about  twenty-five  diameters.  This  is  a  granite  of  quite 
complex  structure,  consisting  of  (i)  orthoclase,  (2)  microcline, 
(3)  plagioclase,  (4)  quartz,  (5)  black  mica,  or  biotite,  and  (6) 
white  mica  or  muscovite.  There  are  also  little  needles  of 
apatite,  scattering  grains  of  iron  ore,  and  occasionally  small 
garnets  present  which  do  not  show  in  the  figure.  The  quartz, 
moreover,  is  pierced  in  every  direction  by  minute  hair-like  crys- 
tals which  are  supposed  to  be  rutile.  The  structure,  as  in  all 
granites  and  gneisses,  is  crystalline  throughout,  as  in  the  mar- 
bles (Fig.  3)  and  diabase  (Fig.  4).  The  crystals  are,  however, 


PLATE  II. 


MICROSCOPIC  STRUCTURE  OF  BUILDING  STONES. 


To  face  fiage  35. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  35 

very  imperfect  in  outline,  owing  to  mutual  interference  in  pro- 
cess of  formation.  Although  the  rock  contains  a  very  large 
proportion  of  the  hard  minerals  quartz  and  feldspar,  these  do 
not  interlock  so  thoroughly  as  do  the  augite  and  feldspars  in 
the  diabase.  As,  moreover,  quartz  is  a  brittle  substance,  these 
rocks  work  much  more  readily  and  will  crush  under  less  pressure 
than  those  of  which  Fig.  4  is  a  type. 

In  Fig.  2  of  the  same  plate  is  shown  the  structure  of  an  oolitic 
limestone  from  Princeton,  in  Caldwell  County,  Kentucky.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  first  step  in  the  formation  of  this  stone 
was  the  deposition  of  concentric  coatings  of  lime  about  a  nucleus 
which  is  sometimes  nearly  round,  but  more  frequently  quite 
angular  and  irregular.  After  the  concretions  were  completed 
there  were  formed  in  all  cases  about  each  one  narrow  zones  of 
minute  radiating  crystals  of  clear,  colorless  calcite  ;  then  the 
larger  crystals  formed  in  the  interstices.  An  examination  of 
the  section  in  polarized  light  shows  that  while  the  concentric 
portions  are  nearly  always  amorphous  the  nuclei  (and  always 
the  interstitial  matter)  is  frequently  crystalline.  The  nuclei  are 
composed  in  some  cases  of  single  fragments,  or,  again,  of  a 
group  of  fragments.  Certain  of  the  oolites  present  no  distinct 
concentric  structure,  but  appear  as  mere  rounded  masses  merg- 
ing gradually  into  the  crystalline  interstitial  portions.  On  the 
application  of  acetic  acid  to  an  uncovered  slide  of  this  rock  a 
brisk  effervesence  at  once  set  in,  which,  when  the  slide  was 
again  placed  on  the  stage  of  the  microscope,  was  seen  not  to 
arise  from  all  portions  of  the  slide  alike,  but  to  be  confined 
almost  exclusively  to  the  outer  non-crystalline  portions  of  the 
oolites,  so  that  in  time  these  almost  completely  disappeared, 
leaving  the  crystalline  nuclei  and  cementing  material  till  the 
very  last.  Some  of  the  outlines  thus  left  are  peculiarly  de- 
ceptive, having  almost  the  appearance  of  a  cross-section  of 
coral  or  a  crinoid  stem.  This  structure  is  common,  so  far  as  I 


$6  STONES  FOR  BUILDING- AND  DECORATION. 

have  observed,  to  all  the  oolitic  limestones  of  both  Kentucky 
and  Indiana.  In  the  weathering  of  these  stones  then  we  would 
have  produced  an  effect  precisely  the  opposite  of  that  produced 
in  fragmental  siliceous  rocks.  In  the  latter  case  the  cement  is 
removed  and  the  grains  themselves  are  but  slightly  acted  upon  ; 
in  the  former,  the  grains  themselves  disappear  and  the  cement- 
ing material  remains.  It  should  be  remarked,  however,  that 
we  have  as  yet  no  proof  that  the  action  of  an  acid  atmosphere 
on  one  of  these  oolites  would  proceed  with  other  than  extreme 
slowness.  In  fact,  their  compactness,  freedom  from  cleavage, 
fractures,  and  flaws  would  seem  to  indicate  just  the  contrary. 
Further  investigations  on  this  point  are  necessary  before  one 
can  speak  definitely. 

The  microscopic  structure  of  ordinary  white  crystalline  lime- 
stone is  shown  in  Fig.  3,  drawn  from  a  magnified  section  of  a 
West  Rutland  marble.  The  entire  mass  of  the  rock,  it  will  be 
observed,  is  made  up  of  small  calcite  crystals  of  quite  uniform 
size  closely  locked  together,  and  with  no  appreciable  inter- 
spaces. The  dark  stripes  across  the  crystals  are  caused  by 
twin  lamellae  and  cleavage  lines.  All  traces  of  its  fossil  origin, 
if  such  it  had,  have  been  obliterated  by  metamorphism. 

Fig.  4  is  that  of  a  diabase  from  Weehawken,  N.  J.  The 
elongated,  nearly  colorless  crystals,  shaded  with  long  parallel 
lines,  are  plagioclase  feldspar,  the  very  irregular  ones  augite, 
while  the  perfectly  black  and  opaque  are  magnetite.  The 
figure,  however,  is  given  to  show  the  structure  rather  than  the 
mineral  composition  of  the  rock.  It  will  be  noticed  that  every 
portion  of  available  space  is  occupied,  there  being  no  residual 
spaces  to  be  filled  by  cement,  as  in  the  sandstone  ;  also  that 
the  feldspars  and  augites  so  closely  interlock  that  they  can  not 
be  forced  apart  without  breaking.  As  both  of  these  minerals 
are  quite  tough  and  hard,  the  great  strength,  durability,  and 
hard-working  qualities  of  the  rock  can  readily  be  understood, 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  37 

although  the  constituents  themselves  are  not  harder  than  those 
that  go  to  make  up  some  of  the  most  friable  sandstones. 

As  showing  the  differences  in  structure  and  composition  of 
the  sandstones,  Figs.  5  arid  6  are  given,  drawn  from  thin  sec- 
tions of  the  brown  Triassic  stone  from  Portland,  Connecticut,  and 
a  reddish  Potsdam  stone  from  quarries  in  the  town  of  Potsdam, 
New  York.  In  the  first  mentioned,  Fig.  6,  the  stone,  it  will  be 
noticed,  is  composed  of  (i)  clear,  angular  grains  of  quartz,  (2) 
clouded  grains  of  orthoclase  and  plagioclase,  the  latter  being 
recognized  by  its  parallel  banding,  and  numerous  irregular  and 
contorted  shreds  of  black  and  white  mica.  These  are  all 
crowded  into  a  loosely  compacted  mass  and  the  interstices  filled 
by  a  cement  composed  of  an  amorphous  mixture  of  iron  oxides, 
Carbonate  of  lime,  and  clayey  matter.  These  are  represented 
in  black  in  the  figure.  It  will  be  observed  that  only  the 
quartzes  and  a  few  of  the  feldspars  are  in  a  fresh  and  unde- 
co.iiposed  condition,  nearly  all  of  the  latter  being  badly  kaolin- 
ized.  The  Potsdam  stone  (Fig.  5)  shows,  however,  a  markedly 
different  structure.  Here  the  granules  are  wholly  of  quartz, 
and  very  much  rounded  in  form.  No  feldspars,  mica,  or  other 
minerals  are  present.  The  original  rounded  outline  of  the 
quartz  granule  is  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  and  deeply  shaded 
portions,  while  every  portion  of  the  interstices  is  occupied  by 
a  clear,  coloress,  siliceous  cement  binding  the  rock  into  a  hard, 
compact,  and  impervious  quartzite  almost  absolutely  unaffected 
by  chemical  and  atmospheric  agencies.* 

*  This  rock  shows  to  beautiful  advantage  the  secondary  enlargement  of 
quartz  granules  by  deposition  of  interstitial  silica  having  the  same  crystallo- 
graphic  orientation  as  the  granules  themselves,  a  peculiarity  first  noted  by  the 
Swedish  geologist  Tornebohm,  later  by  Sorby  (Quar.  Jour.  Geol.  Soc.,  1880,  p. 
58),  and  since  described  in  great  detail  in  American  Rocks  by  Irving  and  Van 
Hise,  (Am.  Jour,  of  Sci.,  June,  1883);  also  Bull.  No.  8,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey).  I 
may  say  further  here  that  the  red  and  brown  colors  of  our  Triassic  sandstones 
seem  to  be  due  not  merely  to  the  thin  pellicle  of  iron  oxides  with  which  each 


38  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

The  cause  of  the  wide  variation  in  relative  durability  of 
stones  of  these  two  types  becomes  now  at  once  apparent.  In 
the  first  case  the  abundant  amorphous  cement  is  not  only 
slightly  soluble,  and  liable  to  partial  removal  by  the  water  from 
rains,  but  it  also  facilitates  the  absorption  of  a  proportionally 
large  amount  of  moisture.  On  being  subjected  to  repeated 
freezing  and  thawing  while  in  this  saturated  condition,  the 
grains  gradually  become  loosened  and  the  characteristic  scaling 
results.  Stones  of  the  Potsdam  type,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
practically  non-absorptive  and  insoluble,  and  are  susceptible  to 
no  other  natural  influences  than  the  constant  expansion  and 
contraction  caused  by  changes  in  temperature.  They  are  con- 
sequently vastly  more  durable.  Unfortunately  they  are  also 
much  harder,  and  hence  can  be  utilized  only  at  greatly  in- 
creased expense. 

(3)  STATE  OF  AGGREGATION. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  properties  of  building 
stone,  since  is  dependent  upon  it  very  largely  the  hardness  or 
softness  of  a  rock  and  its  consequent  working  qualities.  Many 
rocks  composed  of  hard  materials  work  readily  because  their 
grains  are  but  loosely  coherent,  while  others  of  softer  materials 

granule  is  surrounded,  but  the  feldspathic  grains — often  badly  decomposed — are 
stained  throughout  by  the  same  material,  and  which  also  occurs  mixed  with 
clayey,  calcareous  and  silicious  matter  forming  the  cement.  This  is  never  the 
case,  so  far  as  I  have  observed,  in  the  Potsdam  stones,  in  which  the  oxide 
occurs  only  as  a  thin  coating  around  each  granule,  as  shown  by  the  shaded  por- 
tions in  Fig.  5.  My  own  experience,  also,  is  to  the  effect  that  the  fragments  of 
which  the  Triassic  stones  are  composed,  are  much  less  rounded  by  attrition 
than  seems  ordinarily  supposed,  or  as  they  are  represented  when  figured.  Fig. 
4  is  very  typical  of  the  Portland  stone,  but  it  does  not  in  the  least  resemble  that 
given  in  Fig.  6,  Plate  xn,  Lith.  &  Min.  of  New  Hampshire.  Naturally,  how- 
ever, samples  selected  from  different  beds,  or  from  different  localities,  will  be 
found  to  vary  greatly. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  39 

are  quite  tough  and  difficult  to  work  owing  to  the  tenacity  with 
which  their  particles  adhere  to  one  another.  Obviously  a  stone 
in  which  the  grains  adhere  closely  and  strongly  one  to  another 
will  be  less  absorbent  and  more  durable  under  pressure  than 
one  which  is  loose  textured  and  friable.  A  rock  is  called  y^Vz/^ 
when  fine  grained  and  closely  compacted  like  flint ;  earthy 
when  partially  decomposed  into  earth  or  loam  ;  friable  when 
it  falls  easily  into  powder  or  crumbles  readily  under  the  tool. 
Upon  the  state  of  aggregation  and  the  fineness  of  the  grain 
is  dependent  very  largely  the  kind  of  fracture  possessed  by  a 
rock.  Fine  grained,  compact  rocks  like  flint,  obsidian,  and 
some  limestones,  break  with  concave  and  convex  shell-like  sur- 
faces, forming  a  conchoidal  fracture;  such  stones  are  called 
plucky  by  the  workmen  and  they  are  often  quite  difficult  to 
dress  on  this  account.  Others  break  with  a  rough  and  jagged 
surface  called  hackly  or  splintery.  When  as  in  free-working 
sandstone  and  granite  the  broken  surface  is  quite  straight  and 
free  from  inequalities  they  are  referred  to  as  having  a  straight 
or  right  fracture. 

(4)   RIFT  AND   GRAIN. 

The  rift  of  a  rock  is  the  direction  parallel  to  its  foliation  or 
bedding  and  along  which  it  can  usually  be  relied  upon  to  split 
with  greatest  ease.  It  is  best  represented  in  mica  schist,  gneiss, 
and  other  rocks  of  sedimentary  origin.  It  is  a  property,  how- 
ever, common  to  massive  rocks,  though  usually  much  less  pro- 
nounced. The  grain  is  always  in  a  direction  at  right  angles 
with  the  rift. 

These  are  two  most  important  qualities  in  any  stone  that  it  is 
desired  to  work  into  blocks  of  any  regularity  of  shape.  With- 
out them  the  production  of  rough  blocks  for  street  paving  or 
for  finely  finished  work  would  be  possible  only  with  greatly  in- 
creased expense,  and  only  the  very  softest  stones  could  be 


0*  T 

17  BJ  ,1 
.C. 


4O  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

worked  with  any  degree  of  economy.  With  them  the  hardest 
rocks  are  sometimes  most  readily  worked.  Thus  the  Sioux 
Falls  (South  Dakota)  quartzite,  one  of  the  hardest  known 
rocks,  is  as  readily  broken  out  into  square  blocks  for  paving  as 
a  granite  or  soft  sandstone. 

(5)  COLOR. 

The  color  of  a  stone  is  as  a  rule  dependent  more  upon  its 
chemical  than  its  physical  properties.  As  will  be  noted,  how- 
ever, the  color  of  the  granites  and  similar  rocks  is  sometimes 
varied  in  shades  of  light  and  dark,  accordingly  as  the  feldspars 
are  clear  and  glassy  and  absorb  the  light,  or  white  and  opaque 
and  reflect  it.  The  chief  coloring  matter  in  rocks  is  iron,  which 
exists  either  in  chemical  combination  with  the  various  min- 
erals or  in  some  of  its  simpler  compounds  such  as  the  sulphide, 
carbonate,  or  oxide  disseminated  in  minute  particles  through- 
out the  mass  of  the  rock.  The  free  oxides  of  iron  impart  a 
brownish  or  reddish  hue,  the  carbonates  or  sulphides  a  bluish 
or  gray.  A  very  light  or  nearly  white  color  denotes  the  ab- 
sence of  iron  in  any  of  its  forms.  On  the  condition  of  the  iron 
is  dependent  also  the  permanency  of  color.  Either  the  sul- 
phide, carbonate  or  other  protoxide  compounds,  are  liable  to 
oxidation,  and  hence  stones  containing  it  in  these  forms  fade 
or  turn  yellowish  and  stain  on  exposure.  The  sesquioxide  on 
the  other  hand  can  undergo  no  further  oxidation,  and  hence 
the  color  caused  by  it  is  the  most  durable.  As  a  rule,  therefore, 
the  decidedly  red  colors  may  be  considered  most  permanent. 

The  blue  and  black  colors  of  marbles  and  limestones  are 
due  largely  to  carbonaceous  matter. 

The  effects  of  the  various  mineral  constituents  in  varying 
the  shades  of  colors  are  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  rock- 
forming  minerals  and  in  the  descriptions  of  the  different  kinds 
of  stones.  Great  care  and  judgment  is  needed  in  the  selection 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  4! 

of  proper  colors  in  building.  Heavy  rock-faced  walls  of  dull 
brown  sandstone,  dark  gneiss,  or  diabase  always  impart  an 
appearance  of  gloom,  while  warm,  bright  colors  are  cheering 
and  pleasing  to  the  eye.  The  late  Architect  Richardson  owed 
a  considerable  share  of  his  success  to  his  power  of  selecting  for 
any  particular  piece  of  work  stone  of  such  color  as  to  be  most 
effective  and  harmonious  in  the  finished  structure. 


(6)   THE    CHEMICAL    CHARACTERS    OF    ROCKS. 

This  naturally  varies  with  the  mineral  composition  and 
their  ever-varying  proportions.  Nevertheless,  it  is  possible  to 
obtain  general  averages  from  which  the  stones  of  each  particu- 
lar kind  will  not  be  found  to  vary  widely.  It  is  customary  to 
consider  rocks  which,  like  granite,  are  rich  in  silica  as  acidic, 
while  those  in  which,  as  in  basalt,  the  average  percentage  falls 
below  fifty  are  called  basic.  Various  descriptive  adjectives  are 
applied  to  the  names  of  rocks  according  as  they  vary  in  com- 
position. Calcareous  rocks  consist  principally  of  lime,  or  con- 
tain an  appreciable  amount ;  argillaceous  contain  clay,  which 
can  usually  be  recognized  by  its  odor  when  breathed  upon  ; 
siliceous  contain  some  form  of  silica ;  ferruginous,  iron  in  the 
form  of  oxide  ;  carbonaceous,  more  or  less  carbon  ;  bituminous 
contain  bitumen,  which  can  often  be  detected  by  the  odor  of 
petroleum  given  off  when  the  rock  is  freshly  broken.  Cal- 
careous rocks  can  always  be  detected  from  their  effervescing 
when  treated  with  a  dilute  acid.  The  chemical  composition 
of  a  stone  is  often  a  guide  to  its  suitability  for  structural  pur- 
poses. Those  containing  much  lime  are  more  liable  to  be  un- 
favorably affected  by  the  acid  gases  of  cities,  and  the  various 
forms  of  iron  present  are  of  importance  both  regarding  the 
weathering  properties  of  the  stones  and  their  colors,  as  will  be 


42  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

noticed  later  under  special  cases.     A  table  of  rock  composi- 
tions is  to  be  found  near  the  close  of  this  volume. 


ROCK    CLASSIFICATION. 


The  rocks  now  in  use  for  constructive  purposes  may  be 
classified  sufficiently  close  for  present  purposes  under  the  fol- 
lowing heads : 


A.— CRYSTALLINE  AND  VITREOUS. 
I.— Simple  Rocks. 

(1)  Silicates  : 

(a)  Talc  (including  Steatite  and 

Soapstone). 

(b)  Serpentine.     (In  part.) 

(2)  Sulphates  : 

(a)  Gypsum  (including  Alabas- 
ter and  Satin  Spar). 

(3)  Carbonates : 

(a)  Limestone  and  Dolomites. 

II. — Compound  Rocks. 

(1)  Massive  with  Quartz   and   Ortho- 

clase  ;  acidic : 

(a)  Granites   and   Granite   Por- 
phyries. 

(b}  Quartz  Porphyries. 

(c)  Liparites. 

(2)  Massive,  without  Quartz  : 

(a)   Syenite. 

(b}  Quartz-free  Orthoclase  Por- 
phyries. 
(c)  Trachytes  and  Phonolites. 


(3)  Plagioclase  rocks;  basic  : 

(a)  Diorites  and    Diorite    Por- 

phyrites. 

(b)  Diabases,    Gabbros,    Mela- 

phyres,  and  Basalts. 

(c)  The  Andesites. 

(4)  Rocks  without  feldspars  : 

(a)  The   Peridotites.      (Serpen- 
tines in  part.) 

(5)  Schistose  or  foliated  rocks  : 

(a)  Gneiss  (included   here   with 

the  Granites). 
(b}  The  Schists. 

B.  FRAGMENTAL. 

(a)  The    Psammites,    including 

Sandstone,  Conglomer- 
ate, Breccia,  and  Gray- 
wacke. 

(b)  Pelites  including  Clay^lates 

and  Pipe  Clay. 

(c}  Volcanic   fragmental    rocks, 
Tuffs. 

(d)  Fragmental  rocks  of  organic 

origin  (included  here  un- 
der the  head  of  Lime- 
stones). 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


43 


The  order  in  which  the  rocks  are  mentioned  above  will  be 
adhered  to  in  the  descriptions  given  in  the  following  pages. 
For  the  benefit  of  those  not  familiar  with  the  order  of  succes- 
sion of  the  various  rock  formations  in  the  earth's  crust,  the 
following  table  is  also  given  : 


GEOLOGICAL  RECORD; 

OR  ORDER  OF  SUCCESSION  OF  THE  ROCKS  COMPOSING  THE  EARTH'S  CRUST. 


O)    *j 

rt  § 
5* 


.§         I    O 

S    J  8) 


(  Recent,  or  Terrace. 

•<  Champlain. 

(  Glacial,  or  Drift. 


Tertiary. 


Cretaceous. 


Jurassic. 


Triassic. 


{Pliocene. 
Miocene. 
Eocene. 


Laramie. 

Upper. 

Middle. 

Lower. 

Wealden. 

Upper  oolite. 

Middle  oolite. 

Lower  oolite. 

Upper  Lias. 

Marlstone. 

Lower  Lias. 
(  Keuper. 
^  Muschelkalk. 
f  Bunter  Sandstone. 


44 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


> 

li 

Permian.                                          Permian. 

^  So 

Upper  Coal-measures. 

Is 

•Carboniferous. 

Lower  coal-measures. 
Millstone  Grit. 

rt  0 
U 

Subcarboniferous. 

Upper. 
Lower. 

' 

Catskill.                                        "  Catskill. 

0) 

(    /^U 

ho 

rt 

Chemung.                                     •)  D_^m"rg' 

u    ^ 

Genesee. 

c*i 

•  Hamilton. 

Hamilton. 

-SE 

Marcellus. 

0 

c 

Corniferous. 

*0 

s; 

>  ° 

Corniferous. 

Schoharie. 

« 

Q                 J 

Cauda-galli. 

"|           1  Oriskanv.                                         Oriskanv. 

a! 

c  |  Lower  Helderberg,                       Lower  Helderberg. 

o 

> 

«-g   1  Salina.                                                Salina. 

•> 

c 

S  3    f 

Niagara. 

c3 

^    • 

^  art      Niagara. 

Clinton. 

.i 

0  S 

Medina. 

8)S  r     ^ 

Cincinnati. 

OH 

C8  X5 

w  c     Trenton. 

Utica. 

g 

4j  trt    j 

Trenton. 

*c 

Chazy. 

5 

"-1  J^  j  Canadian. 

Quebec. 

c/o 

Calciferous. 

Cambrian,   )  Upper.                                           (  Potsdam. 

or    Pr  i  ->  Middle.                                         -j  Georgian. 

mordial.  )  Lower.                                           (  St.  John's. 

j  Huronian. 

Arc'haean,  Pre-Cambrian.          (  Laurentian. 

PART   II. 

THE  ROCKS,  QUARRIES  AND   QUARRY  REGIONS. 


STEATITE :— SOAPSTONE. 

This,  although  not  properly  a  building  stone,  is  of  sufficient 
economic  importance  to  merit  attention. 

(l)   COMPOSITION  AND   USES. 

The  name  soapstone  is  properly  applied  to  a  compact, 
dark  bluish  gray  rock  composed  essentially  of  the  mineral  talc. 
It  is  therefore,  like  serpentine,  a  hydrous  silicate  of  magnesia, 
consisting  when  pure  of  65.49  percent  of  silica  ;  31.75  per  cent 
of  magnesia,  and  4.76  per  cent  of  water.  As  a  matter  of  fact 
few,  if  any  known  varieties,  are  chemically  pure,  but  nearly  all 
contain  admixtures  in  the  form  of  mica,  chlorite,  amphibole, 
quartz  (popularly  called  flint),  magnetite,  pyrrhotite  and  pyrite. 
The  stone  is  soft  enough  to  be  cut  readily  with  a  knife,  or  even 
with  the  thumb  nail,  and  has  a  pronounced  soapy  feeling ; 
hence  the  name  soapstone  ;  from  the  fact  that  it  has  in  years 
past  been  used — particularly  by  the  aboriginal  tribes — for 
making  rude  pots,  it  has  also  received  the  name  potstone. 
Steatite  is  the  name  commonly  applied  by  mineralogists  to 
these  rocks,  particularly  the  fine  and  compact  light-colored 
varieties,  while  the  eminently  foliated  or  micaceous  varieties 
are  known  as  simply  talc. 

45 


46  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

The  soapstones  are  suited  for  a  considerable  range  of  ap- 
plication. Although  so  soft  they  are  among  the  most  inde- 
structible and  lasting  of  rocks,  but  are  too  slippery  and  perhaps 
of  too  sombre  a  color  for  general  structural  purposes.  At 
present  the  chief  use  of  the  material  in  the  United  States  is  in 
the  form  of  thin  slabs  for  stationary  wash-tubs.  At  one  time 
it  was  extensively  used  throughout  New  England  in  the  manu- 
facture of  stoves  for  heating  purposes,  and  to  some  extent  for 
fire  brick,  the  well  seasoned  stone  being  thoroughly  fire-proof. 
The  putting  upon  the  market  of  unseasoned  materials,  or  of 
material  with  bad  veins  which  caused  the  stone  to  crack  or  fly 
to  fragments  when  subjected  to  high  temperature,  aroused  a 
prejudice  against  the  employment  of  the  material,  and  the 
manufacture  is  stated  to  have  been  to  a  considerable  extent 
discontinued  as  a  consequence.  In  the  manufacture  of  either 
stoves  or  washtubs,  slabs  of  considerable  size,  free  from  segre- 
gation nodules  of  quartz,  pyrite  or  other  minerals,  or  from  dry 
seams,  are  essential.  As  but  few  of  the  now  known  outcrops 
can  furnish  material  of  this  nature,  the  main  part  of  the  busi- 
ness of  the  country  is  in  the  hands  of  but  two  or  three  com- 
panies. The  waste  material  from  the  quarries,  or  the  entire 
output  in  certain  cases,  is  pulverized  and  used  as  a  lubricant 
or  a  white  earth.  Rubbed  between  the  thumb  and  finger,  the 
powder  is  smooth  and  oily,  without  a  particle  of  grit,  and  its 
lubricating  power  is  in  some  cases  very  remarkable.  It  is  also 
used  in  soap  making,  for  which  purpose  it  can,  however,  be 
considered  only  as  an  adulterant,  increasing  the  weight  but 
not  the  cleansing  properties  of  the  article.  It  is  further  used 
as  a  "  filler  "  in  the  manufacture  of  paper,  and  as  a  dressing  for 
fine  leathers.  Small  quantities  are  used  in  the  powdered  form 
by  shoe  and  glove  dealers  also.  The  pure  creamy  white  talc, 
such  as  is  obtained  from  North  Carolina,  is  used  for  crayons 
and  slate  pencils,  while  the  still  finer,  cryptocrystalline  varieties 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  47 

such  as  are  at  present  obtained  almost  wholly  from  abroad,  are 
used  by  tailors  under  the  name  of  "  French  chalk,"  and  for 
making  the  tips  for  gas  burners.  Fine  compact  grades  of  a 
somewhat  similar  rock  (agalmatolite)  are  used  extensively  in 
China  and  Japan  for  small  ornaments.  The  stone  is  readily 
carved  in  fine  sharp  lines,  and  is  a  general  favorite  for  making 
the  grotesque  images  for  which  these  countries  are  noted. 

Soapstone  occurs  associated  with  stratified  rocks  only  in 
the  older  formations,  and  hence  the  principal  beds  now  known 
lie  in  the  Appalachian  regions  in  the  Eastern  United  States. 
The  beds,  as  a  rule,  are  not  extensive  but  occur  as  lenticular 
shaped  masses  of  uncertain  area  intercalated  with  other  mag- 
nesian  and  hornblendic  or  micaceous  rocks,  frequently  more  or 
less  admixed  with  serpentine.  The  rock,  like  serpentine,  is  as 
a  rule  traversed  by  bad  seams  and  joints,  and  the  opening  of 
any  new  deposit  is  always  attended  with  more  or  less  risk,  as 
there  is  in  many  cases  no  guarantee  that  sound  blocks  of  suffi- 
cient size  to  be  of  value  will  ever  be  obtainable. 


(2)   SOAPSTONES   OF   THE   VARIOUS   STATES  AND 
TERRITORIES. 

Arkansas. — A  fine,  compact,  brecciated  steatite  occurs  some 
12  miles  north  of  Benton,  Salina  County.  The  supply  is  stated 
to  be  abundant.* 

California.  —  Soapstone  of  fine  quality  is  said  to  occur  near 
Placerville,  in  El  Dorado  County ;  also  in  Tuolumne  County, 
near  Sonora  and  Buchanan.f 

Maine. — A  large  bed  of  soapstone  is  stated  by  Jackson  J  to 

*  Agriculture  and  Mineral  Resources  of  Arkansas,  1887. 

f  Eighth  Annual  Report  State  Mineralogist  of  California,  1888. 

\  First  Annual  Report  Geology  of  Maine,  1837  p.  79. 


48  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  -AND  DECORATION. 

occur  on  Orr's  Island  in  Cumberland  County.  The  stone  is 
interstratified  with  micaceous  and  talcose  schists,  the  strata 
running  N.N.E.  and  S.S.W.,  with  a  dip  of  80°  W.N.W.  The 
bed  is  exposed  in  an  outcropping  14  feet  wide  on  the  southeast 
side  of  the  island.  The  stone  is  stated  to  be  hard  to  saw,  yet 
capable  of  being  wrought  into  excellent  slabs  for  the  construc- 
tion of  stoves  and  firegrates,  being  very  refractory,  and  not 
cracking  when  exposed  to  intense  heat.  This  bed,  so  far  as 
the  author  is  aware,  has  never  been  worked.  Other  beds  are 
stated  to  occur  at  Jaquish  and  Harpswell,  and  which  have  been 
wrought  to  some  extent. 

Maryland. — Small  areas  of  soapstone  resulting  from  the 
alteration  of  an  eruptive  enstatite  rock  are  common  in  Carroll 
and  Montgomery  Counties  in  this  State,  and  have  for  many 
years  been  quarried  in  a  crude  and  itinerant  manner  near 
Sykesville,  in  Carroll  County.  The  rock  on  the  surface  here, 
as  is  usual,  is  badly  jointed,  and  the  openings  are  not  of  suffi- 
cient depth  to  afford  much  encouragement.  The  quarried 
material  is  sawn  up  into  slabs  of  small  size  for  foot-warmers 
and  grillers. 

Massachusetts. — Quarries  of  soapstone  have  been  worked 
from  time  to  time  in  Lynnfield  and  North  Dana,  in  this  State. 
The  Lynnfield  stone  occurs  in  connection  with  serpentine. 
It  is  soft  enough  to  be  readily  cut  with  an  ordinary  hand-snw 
when  first  quarried,  but  hardens  on  exposure.  When  quar- 
ried, it  was  used  chiefly  for  stove-backs,  sills,  and  steps.  At 
North  Dana  the  soapstone  quarries  were  opened  as  early  as 
1846,  and  have  at  times  been  quite  extensively  worked. 

New  Hampshire. — An  extensive  bed  of  fine  quality  soap- 
stone  was  discovered  in  1794  at  Francestown,  in  this  State, 
and  was  worked  as  early  as  1802.  Up  to  1867  some  2,020 
tons  had  been  quarried  and  sold.  In  this  latter  year  some 
3,700  stoves  were  manufactured  by  one  company  alone.  The 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  49 

business  has  been  conducted  upon  a  large  scale  ever  since. 
The  bed  has  been  followed  some  400  feet,  and  the  present 
opening  is  some  40  feet  wide,  80  feet  long,  and  80  feet  deep 
Other  beds  constituting  a  part  of  the  same  formation  occur  in 
Weare,  Warner,  Canterbury,  and  Richmond,  all  of  which  have 
been  operated  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  Five  beds  of  soap- 
stone  also  occur  in  the  town  of  Orford,  and  an  important 
quarry  was  opened  in  Haverhill  as  early  as  1855.  It  has  not, 
however,  been  worked  continuously.* 

New  York. — Soapstone  or  talc  occurs  in  abundance  in 
Fowler  and  Edwards,  Saint  Lawrence  County,  in  this  State. 
It  is  said  to  be  of  good  quality,  remarkably  tough,  and  very 
refractory  in  fire.f 

North  Carolina. — Soapstone  of  fine  quality  occurs  in  sev- 
eral localities  in  the  southwestern  part  of  this  State,  the 
national  collection  showing  specimens  from  7  miles  northeast 
of  Murphy,  Cherokee  County;  from  4^  miles  from  Green- 
borough,  Guilford  County ;  from  Alamance  County ;  from 
Nantehala  River,  Cherokee  County;  and  from  Deep  River, 
Moore  County.  Of  these  the  Nantehala  stone  is  a  pure,  nearly 
white,  compact  talc,  said  to  be  fully  equal  to  the  best  French 
chalk.  It  has  been  much  used  as  a  white  earth.  The  Deep 
River  "  soapstone  "  is  a  compact  variety  of  the  mineral  pyro- 
phylite.  This  is  also  used  as  white  earth.  Both  these  stones 
are  shipped  in  bulk  to  New  York,  where  they  are  ground  and 
bolted.  The  stones  from  the  other  localities  are  of  the  ordin- 
ary type  of  soapstones,  but  apparently  of  good  quality. 

Pennsylvania. — In  the  southern  edge  of  Montgomery 
County,  "  extending  from  the  northern  brow  of  Chestnut  Hill 
between  the  two  turnpikes,  across  the  Wissahickon  Creek  and 


*  Geology  of  New  Hampshire,  Vol.  in.,  p.  86-88- 
\  Geology  of  New  York,  1838,  p.  206. 


50  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

the  Schuylkill  to  a  point  about  a  mile  west  of  Merion  Square," 
occurs  a  long,  straight  outcrop  of  steatite  and  serpentine. 
The  eastern  and  central  part  of  this  belt  on  its  southern  side 
"  consists  chiefly  of  a  talcose  steatite,"  while  the  northern  side 
contains  much  serpentine  interspersed  in  lumps  through  the 
steatite.  Only  in  a  few  neighborhoods  does  the  steatite  or 
serpentine  occur  in  a  state  of  sufficient  purity  to  be  profitably 
quarried.  On  the  east  bank  of  the  Schuylkill,  about  two 
miles  below  Spring  Mill,  a  good  quality  of  material  occurs 
that  has  long  been  successfully  worked.  It  has  also  been 
quarried  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river  about  a  third  of  a  mile 
away,  and  to  a  less  extent  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Wissa- 
hickon,  opposite  Thorp's  Mill.  The  material  is  now  used 
principally  for  lining  stoves,  fire-places,  and  furnaces,  though 
toward  the  end  or  the  last  century  and  the  early  part  of  the 
present  one,  before  the  introduction  of  Montgomery  County 
marble,  it  was  in  considerable  demand  for  door  steps  and  sills. 
It  proved  poorly  adapted  for  this  purpose,  however,  owing  to 
the  unequal  hardness  of  its  different  constituents,  the  soap- 
stone  wearing  rapidly  away,  while  the  serpentine  was  left  pro- 
jecting like  knots  or  "  hob-nails  in  a  plank."  * 

South  Carolina. — Steatite  or  soapstone  is  said  to  occur  in 
this  State  in  the  counties  of  Chester,  Spartanburgh,  Union, 
Pickens,  Oconee,  Anderson,  Abbeville,  Kershaw,  Fairfield,  and 
Richland.  The  Anderson  County  stone  is  said  to  have  been 
much  used  for  hearthstones.  That  of  Pickens  County  is  con- 
sidered of  value,  but  it  has  been  quarried  to  a  very  limited 
extent.f 

Texas. — Soapstone  of  good  quality  and  inexhaustible  in 
quantity  is  stated  to  occur  in  large  veins  on  the  Hondo  and 


*  Rep.  C4,  Second  Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania,  pp.  95,  96. 
f  South  Carolina,  Population,  Resources,  etc.,  1883. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  51 

Sandy  Creeks,  about  midway  of  their  courses  through  Llano 
County.* 

Vermont. — Most  of  the  steatite  of  this  State  is  found  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Green  Mountains  and  near  the  eastern  line 
of  the  talcose  slate  formation,  beds  of  it  extending  nearly  the 
entire  length  of  the  State.  The  rock  occurs  usually  asso- 
ciated with  serpentine  and  hornblende.  The  beds  are  not 
continuous  and  have,  as  a  rule,  a  great  thickness  in  compari- 
son with  their  length.  It  not  infrequently  happens  that 
several  isolated  outcrops  occur  on  the  same  line  of  strata, 
sometimes  several  miles  apart,  and  in  many  cases  alternating 
with  beds  of  dolomitic  limestones  that  are  scattered  along 
with  them. 

At  least  sixty  beds  of  this  rock  occur  in  the  State  in  the 
towns  of  Readsboro,  Marlborough,  Newfane,  Windham,  Town- 
send,  Athens,  Grafton,  Andover,  Chester,  Cavendish,  Balti- 
more, Ludlow,  Plymouth,  Bridgewater,  Thetford,  Bethel, 
Rochester,  Warren,  Braintree,  Waitsfield,  Moretown,  Duxbury, 
Waterbury,  Bolton,  Stow,  Cambridge,  Waterville,  Berkshire, 
Eden,  Lowell,  Belvidere,  Johnson,  Enosburgh,  Westfield,  Rich- 
ford,  Troy,  and  Jay. 

Of  the  beds  named  those  in  Grafton  and  Athens  are  stated 
to  have  been  longest  worked  and  to  have  produced  the  most 
stone.  The  beds  lie  in  gneiss.  The  quarries  were  piofitably 
worked  as  early  as  1820.  Another  important  bed  is  that  in 
the  town  of  Weathersfield.  This,  like  that  of  Grafton,  is  situ- 
ated in  gneiss,  but  has  no  overlying  rock,  and  the  soapstone 
occurs  in  inexhaustible  quantities.  It  was  first  worked  about 
1847,  and  during  1859  about  800  tons  of  material  were 
removed  and  sold.  The  Rochester  beds  were  also  of  great 
importance,  the  stone  being  peculiarly  fine-grained  and  com- 

*  Second  Annual  Report  Geology  of  Texas,  1876,  p.  26. 


52  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

pact.  It  was  formerly  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
refrigerators.  The  quality  of  the  stone  is  represented  to  be 
unusually  good  and  free  from  impurities.*  The  bed  at  New- 
fane  occurs  in  connection  with  serpentine,  and  is  some  half  a 
mile  in  length  by  not  less  than  twelve  rods  in  width  at  its 
northern  extremity.  The  soapstone  and  serpentine  are 
strangely  mixed,  and  the  general  course  of  the  bed  being 
like  that  of  an  irregular  vein  of  granite  in  limestone. 

Virginia. — Soapstone  occurs  in  this  State,  according  to 
Professor  Rogers,f  near  the  mouth  of  the  Hardware  River, 
both  in  Fluvanna  and  Buckingham  Counties.  There  is  also  a 
bed  of  it  associated  with  the  talcose  slates  in  Albemarle 
County,  a  little  west  of  the  Green  Mountain.  The  beds 
from  here  extend  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  passing  through 
Nelson  County,  where  they  are  associated  with  serpentine  ; 
thence  they  cross  the  James  River  above  Lynchburgh,  and 
present  an  outcrop  about  two  miles  westward  of  the  town 
on  the  road  leading  to  Liberty ;  also  one  about  two  and 
a  half  miles  westward  of  New  London.  Continuing1  in  the 

o 

same  direction  it  is  seen  at  the  meadows  of  Goose  Creek, 
where  it  has  been  quarried  to  some  extent.  Continuing 
in  the  same  general  direction  the  soapstone  again  appears 
in  several  nearly  parallel  ranges,  of  which  the  most  eastern 
makes  its  appearance  near  the  Pigg  River,  in  Franklin  County, 
A  second  belt  occurs  in  the  same  vicinity  near  the  eastern  base 
of  Jack's  Mountain  ;  a  third  still  farther  west,  about  one  mile 
from  Franklin  Court-house,  and  a  fourth  yet  more  to  the  west, 
on  the  eastern  slope  of  Grassy  Hill.  The  material  from  near 
Franklin  Court-house  is  stated  to  be  the  best  of  any  of  the 
above.  About  thirty  miles  southwest  from  Richmond,  at  Chula, 

*  Geology  of  Vermont,  Vol.  n.,  p.  783-91. 
f  Geology  of  tfce  Virginias,  p.  79. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  53 

in  Amelia  County,  there  are  outcrops  of  soapstone  said  to  be 
of  fine  quality,  and  which  in  former  times  were  quite  exten- 
sively operated  by  the  Indians.  They  have  been  re-opened 
within  a  few  years,  and  the  material  is  now  in  the  market. 
Specimens  of  the  stone  examined  by  the  writer  are  by  no 
means  pure  talc,  but  carry  abundant  long  brownish  fibers  of 
some  amphibolic  mineral. 


SERPENTINE,   OPHICALCITE,   VERB-ANTIQUE   MARBLE. 

(l)  COMPOSITION,  ORIGIN,  AND  USES  OF  SERPENTINE. 

THE  rock  serpentine  is  essentially  a  hydrous  silicate  of 
magnesia,  consisting  when  pure  of  nearly  equal  proportions  of 
silica  and  magnesia  with  from  12  to  13  per  cent  of  water.  The 
massive  varieties  quarried  for  architectural  purposes  are  always 
more  or  less  impure,  containing  frequently  from  10  to  12  per 
cent  of  iron  oxides,  together  with  varying  quantities  of  chrome 
iron  (chromite),  iron  pyrites,  hornblende,  olivine,  minerals  of 
the  pyroxene  group,  and  the  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia. 
The  reason  for  this  great  diversity  in  composition  lies  mainly 
in  the  fact  that  serpentine  rarely  if  ever  occurs  as  an  original 
deposit,  but  as  noted  below,  is  always  secondary,  a  product  of 
alteration  of  either  eruptive  or  sedimentary  rocks  rich  in  mag- 
nesian  minerals.  As,  however,  these  rocks  in  no  case  consist  of 
pure  magnesian  silicates,  but  carry  in  addition  lime,  alumina 
and  various  metallic  oxides,  these  constituents  separate  out 
during  the  process  of  change,  and  recrystallize  in  veins,  streaks 
and  blotches  as  calcite,  dolomite,  magnetite,  etc.,  thus  produc- 
ing the  common  variations  in  color.  The  purer  varieties  are 
uniformly  green  or  light  yellowish,  while  the  commercial  forms, 


54  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

as  is  well  known,  are  variously  streaked  and  blotched  and 
sometimes  brownish,  almost  black  or  even  of  a  blood-red  color, 
the  different  shades,  according  to  Delesse,  being  dependent 
upon  the  amount  and  state  of  oxidation  of  the  included  fer- 
ruginous substances. 

The  name  Serpentine  as  applied  to  this  class  of  rocks  is  from 
the  Latin  serpentinus,  a  serpent,  in  allusion  to  the  colors  and 
their  spotted  or  mottled  arrangement.  The  name  ophiolite  or 
ophite  as  sometimes  applied  to  the  spotted  green  and  white 
varieties  is  from  the  Greek  word  c^zY?/?,  also  meaning  a  ser- 
pent, or  serpent-like.  These  rocks  are  also  called  ophicalcite  by 
various  writers.  Precious  serpentine  is  the  pure  translucent, 
massive  variety  of  a  rich  oil  green  color,  like  that  from  Mont- 
ville,  New  Jersey.  Chrysotile  and  Amianthus  are  the  names 
applied  to  fibrous  and  silky  varieties ;  these  are  utilized  as  a 
substitute  for  asbestus,  being  less  brittle  and  of  finer  fiber.  The 
name  verd  antique  (verte  antique,  or  verde  antique),  antique 
green,  it  should  be  stated,  is  not  applied  to  the  rock  of  any 
particular  locality,  but  to  any  of  the  green  serpentinous  marbles 
used  by  the  ancient  Romans,  and  which  were  obtained  originally 
from  Italy,  Greece,  or  Egypt. 

The  origin  of  serpentine  rocks  has  long  been  a  matter  of 
dispute  among  geologists.  Recent  investigations  tend  to  show 
that  in  many  cases  they  result  unmistakably  from  the  altera- 
tion of  igneous  eruptive  rocks,  especially  the  olivine  bearing 
varieties,  such  as  the  peridotites.  In  the  varieties  ophicalcite, 
consisting  of  intermingled  serpentine  and  calcite  or  dolomite, 
the  serpentine  is  apparently  in  all  cases  derived  by  a  process  of 
hydration  from  a  non-aluminous  pyroxene.  The  theory  long 
ably  advocated  by  Dr.  Hunt  to  the  effect  that  the  serpentine 
occurring  intercalated  with  beds  of  schistose  rocks  and  lime- 
stones, resulted  from  metamorphism  of  silico-magnesian  sedi- 
ments deposited  by  sea  waters  is  now  very  generally  abandoned, 


STONES  FOR    BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  55 

and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  substance  ever  occurs  as  an  original 
deposit  even  in  the  eozoonal  forms,  but  is  presumably  always 
secondary.* 

The  following  analyses  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  change  in 
composition  which  takes  place  in  the  conversion  of  (i)  olivine, 
and  (2)  pyroxene  in  to  serpentine. 

I  n  in 

a                be  d 

Silica 41.32$   42,72#    54,2i5#  42, 38$     43,48$ 

Magnesia 54,69      42,52     19,82  42,14       43,48 

Lime . .  24,71 

Alumina 0,28       0,06       0,59  0,07 

Ferric  Oxide. ..-. 0,20  0,97 

Ferrous  Oxide 2,39       2,25       0,27  0,17 

Water 0,20      13,39       0,14  14,12        13,04 

(a)  Olivine,  Snarum,  Norway;  (b)  Serpentine  derived  from  the  same;  (c)  Pyrox- 
ene, Montville,  New  Jersey;  (d)  Serpentine,  derived  from  the  same;  and  (in) 
the  theoretical  composition  of  serpentine. 

This  change  it  will  be  observed  is  in  the  case  of  the  olivine 
simply  a  process  of  hydration — an  assumption  of  some  13$  of 
water.  In  the  pyroxene  the  process  is  more  complex  and  consists 
of  a  loss  in  silica,  of  all  the  lime  which  crystallizes  out  as  calcite, 
and  an  assumption  of  nearly  14$  of  water. 

Owing  to  its  softness,  which  is  such  that  it  can  be  readily 
carved  or  turned  on  a  lathe  and  its  beautiful  colors  when  pol- 
ished, serpentine  has  long  been  a  favorite  with  all  civilized 
nations  for  ornaments  and  interior  decorative  work.  The  rock, 
however,  occurs  almost  universally  in  a  badly  jointed  condition, 
so  that  blocks  of  small  size  only  can  be  obtained,  or  if  large, 
they  are  liable  to  break  under  pressure  or  even  in  process  of 
dressing.  (See  plate  III.)  No  stone  with  which  the  quarry- 

*  The  reader  is  referred  to  British  Petrography  by  J.  J.  H.  Teall  (Dulan  & 
Co.,  Soho  Square,  London,)  p.  104  for  a  most  excellent  historical  sketch  of  this 
subject.  Also  to  Becker's  report  on  the  quicksilver  deposits  of  the  Pacific  Slope, 
monograph  XIII.,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  p.  117. 


$6  STONES  FOR    BUILDING   AND   DECORATION. 


men  have  to  deal  is,  as  a  rule,  so  full  of  defects  as  these  ser- 
pentinous  rocks.  It  is  in  most  cases  practically  impossible  to 
obtain  slabs  of  more  than  a  few  feet  in  diameter  which  will  not, 
through  flaws  or  dry  seams,  fall  apart  if  sawn  at  all  thin,  and  it 
can  in  no  case  be  used  in  blocks  or  pillars  of  any  size  where 
more  than  a  very  moderate  degree  of  strength  is  required,  since 
the  prevalence  of  these  seams  so  weakens  it  as  to  render  it 
worse  than  valueless.  Every  line  or  vein  of  different  color  with 
which  the  stone  is  traversed  but  marks  an  old  flaw  and  is  a  line 
of  weakness. 

This  almost  universal  characteristic  of  the  stone  is  one  in- 
vestors will  do  well  to  carry  in  mind  ;  a  total  disregard  of  this 
trait,  due  presumably  to  ignorance,  has  led  to  no  end  of  quarry 
failures.  Still  another  fact  worthy  of  being  mentioned,  is  that 
however  high  a  lustre  the  stone  may  take,  or  however  beautiful 
it  may  appear  in  small  pieces,  the  color  is  not  one  that  accords 
readily  with  its  surroundings,  and  the  demand  for  it  for  purely 
decorative  work  must  always  be  more  limited  than  that  for 
other  marbles  whose  colors  are  more  harmonious.  Moreover, 
the  stone  is  not  adapted  for  polished  work  in  exposed  situa- 
tions, since  the  different  substances  composing  the  body  of  the 
stone  and  filling  the  veins,  and  imparting  beauty  by  contrast, 
will,  on  exposure,  weather  unequally. 

The  white  and  yellowish  veins  lose  their  lustre  and  crumble 
away,  or  turn  dull  yellow,  while  the  whole  block  becomes 
seamed  and  the  serpentine  itself  takes  on  a  greasy  lustre  mak- 
ing it  as  unsightly  as  it  once  was  beautiful.  This  unfortunate 
property  of  veined  stones  is  further  alluded  to  in  the  chapter 
on  the  Selection  of  Building  Stones  (p.  382).  For  small  orna- 
ments, and  in  slabs  of  moderate  dimensions  for  interior  decor- 
ations, serpentine  is  capable  of  producing  good  affects.  Too 
much  has  been  and  still  is  expected  from  it,  and  in  this,  largely, 
lies  the  failure  that  has  fallen  to  the  lot  of  nearly  every  quarry 
that  has  been  opened  in  America. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  $? 


(2)   SERPENTINES   OF  THE  VARIOUS   STATES  AND   TERRI- 
TORIES. 

California. — Inexhaustible  quantities  of  serpentine  of  a  deep 
green  or  yellowish  color  occur  in  the  region  round  about  San 
Francisco,  and  often  in  such  situations  as  to  be  easily  available, 
as  at  the  head  of  Market  street.  So  far  as  observed  none  of 
the  material  is  of  such  a  quality  as  to  render  it  of  value  for 
ornamental  work,  while  its  gloomy  color  renders  it  equally 
objectionable  for  purposes  of  general  construction. 

The  rock  is  also  abundant  in  other  parts  of  the  State,  but  the 
writer  having  seen  little  of  the  material  excepting  as  displayed 
in  small  fragments  in  the  State  museum  at  San  Francisco,  is 
obliged  to  reply  mainly  upon  the  statements  of  others  regard- 
ing their  economic  value. 

A  body  of  serpentine  varying  from  dark  green  to  dark 
mahogany  is  stated  *  to  occur  six  or  seven  miles  north-east  of 
lone,  near  Dry  Creek,  in  Amador  County.  Other  deposits 
are  stated  by  the  same  authority  to  occur  near  Benicia  in 
Solano  County.  According  to  Becker,  f  serpentine  occurs  in 
irregular  areas  throughout  the  quicksilver  belt  of  California 
sometimes  in  comparatively  pure  masses  and  sometimes  as  one 
of  the  mineral  constituents  of  altered  sandstones  and  granular 
metamorphic  rocks.  The  entire  area  covered  by  the  rocks  of 
this  class  is  estimated  as  not  less  than  1000  square  miles,  be- 
tween Clear  Lake  and  New  Idria.  These  Mr.  Becker  regards 
not  as  altered  olivine  rocks,  but  as  derived  from  a  variety  of 
minerals  including  even  the  quartz  and  feldspar  granules  in 
silicious  sandstones. 

*  Report  State  Mineralogist  of  California,  1888,  p.  104. 

f  Geology  of  the  Quicksilver  Deposits  of  the    Pacific  Slope.     Monograph 
XIII.,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  p.  108. 


58  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND  DECORATION, 

Near  the  town  of  Victor,  San  Bernardino  County,  are  ex- 
tensive beds  of  a  serpentinous  limestone  which  perhaps  may  as 
well  be  described  here.  According  to  the  reports  of  the  State 
Mineralogist  *  the  stone  occurs  in  inexhaustible  quantities  and 
blocks  of  large  size  are  obtainable  free  from  flaws.  Samples  of 
the  stone  examined  by  the  writer  vary  from  light  yellowish 
and  greenish  to  deep  green,  variously  mottled  and  streaked. 
The  stone  has  apparently  a  similar  origin  to  the  verdantique 
of  New  York  State  (see  p.  65)  and  is  therefore  a  mixture  of  cal- 
careous and  serpentinous  matter.  It  is  of  fine  grain,  close 
texture,  and  acquires  a  high  polish.  It  is  possible  that  owing 
to  its  general  lighter  and  more  harmonious  colors  this  stone 
may  prove  more  successful  in  our  markets  than  have  the 
majority  of  verdantique  marbles. 

Connecticut. — The  serpentine  deposits  of  Connecticut  are 
thus  described  by  Professor  Shepard  :f  "  Connecticut  prospers, 
however,  in  the  green  marbles  of  Milford,  a  material  for 
decoration  much  more  beautiful  and  highly  prized  than  white 
marble.  These  were  first  detected  in  1811.  Two  quarries 
were  soon  after  opened,  one  near  the  village  of  Milford,  and 
called  the  Milford  quarry ;  the  other  2\  miles  west  of  New 
Haven,  and  called  the  New  Haven  quarry.  They  were 
wrought  with  considerable  activity  for  several  years,  and 
furnished  an  abundance  of  very  rich  marble  ;  but  as  the  work- 
ing of  them  was  attended  with  heavy  expense  from  the  diffi- 
culty of  obtaining  blocks  of  large  dimensions  that  were  per- 
fectly sound,  and  from  the  labor  required  in  sawing  and  polishing, 
they  were  in  a  few  years  abandoned,  and  have  for  a  long  time 
been  in  a  neglected  condition.  The  experiment  proved  an  un- 


*  loth  Annual,  1890,  p.  528. 

\  Report  on  the  Geological  Survey  of  Connecticut,  by  C.  U.  Shepard,  1837, 
pp.  101-103. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  59 

fortunate  one,  therefore,  not  from  any  deficiency  of  marble  or 
its  lack  of  beauty — for  these  were  both  fully  admitted — but 
from  a  want  of  wealth  and  taste  in  the  country  to  sustain  the 
price. 

It  was  perhaps  an  unfortunate  thing  that  the  whole  of  the 
marble  afforded  by  these  quarries  v/as  denominated  verde 
antique,  whereas  but  a  small  part  of  that  furnished  is  entitled 
to  this  name. 

The  quarry  at  Milford  is  capable  of  furnishing  abundant 
supplies  of  this  highly  valued  marble  (i.e.,  the  verde  antique 
variety),  although,  from  the  circumstance  that  it  occupies  nar- 
row and  irregular  seams  among  the  veined  marble,  blocks  or 
slabs  of  any  size  must  always  be  dear  compared  with  pieces 
sawn  as  formerly,  without  any  regard  to  its  separation  from 
the  more  common  kind.  .  .  .  Whenever  the  attempt  to  work 
it  is  made,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  same  experience  of 
the  past  will  prevent  its  use  for  monuments  exposed  to  the 
weather,  for  besides  the  incongruity  of  its  colors  compared 
with  the  marbles  usually  employed  for  this  purpose,  it  soon 
loses  its  lustre  and  emits  color  from  the  action  of  the  weather 
on  the  grains  of  magnetic  iron  ore  it  contains. 

The  New  Haven  marble,  though  destitute  of  the  accidental 
and  in  some  measure  classical  value  which  pertains  to  the 
Milford  variety,  is  nevertheless  a  beautiful  thing  for  decoration. 
In  vivacity  of  colors  and  the  delicacy  of  their  arrangement  it  is 
hardly  capable  of  being  surpassed.  It  may  be  described  as  a 
bluish  gray  or  dove-colored  limestone  clouded  with  greenish 
yellow  serpentine,  the  latter  containing  black  grains  and  sheet 
veins  of  magnetic  iron  ore.  The  disposition  of  the  colors  is 
cloud-like,  flamed,  and  veined.  It  polishes  with  difficulty  in 
consequence  of  the  magnetic  iron  it  contains,  which,  though  it 
heightens  its  beauty,  unfits  it  for  exposure  to  the  weather." 
So  far  as  the  present  writer  is  aware  these  quarries  have  not 


6O  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

been  worked  since  the  time  mentioned  by  Professor  Shepard  ; 
i.e.,  since  a  few  years  subsequent  to  1811. 

Delaivare. — Serpentine  of  various  shades  of  green  is  stated 
to  occur  about  6  miles  northeast  from  Wilmington,  New 
Castle  County,  and  also  to  the  westward,  near  the  State  line, 
where  Brandywine  Creek  enters  the  State  line  from  Pennsyl- 
vania.* So  far  as  the  writer  is  aware  it  has  never  been 
quarried. 

Maine. — A  large  bed  of  serpentine  occurs  on  the  northern 
end  of  Deer  Isle,  in  Penobscot  Bay,  in  this  State.  The  rock 
is  very  massive,  and  of  a  dark  green,  almost  black  color,  some- 
times streaked  and  spotted  by  veins  of  amianthus  and  diallage 
crystals.  It  Ls  indeed  almost  too  dark  and  somber  for  orna- 
mental work,  but  seems  very  durable  and  well  adapted  for 
general  building  purposes.  A  company  was  formed  some  years 
ago  for  working  this  stone,  and  a  shop  erected  for  saws 
and  grinding  beds.  A  considerable  amount  of  material  was 
quarried,  but  the  work  was  soon  discontinued,  and  had  not  been 
resumed  at  the  time  of  the  writer's  visit  in  1884.  The  com- 
pany seem  to  have  fallen  into  the  error  of  supposing  that  the 
stone  could  be  used  in  long  pieces  and  slabs  for  window 
trimmings,  and  door-posts,  but  for  which,  owing  to  its  jointed 
condition,  it  is  entirely  unfitted.  The  deposit  covers  a  nearly 
level  area  of  many  acres  in  extent,  and  lies  within  a  short  dis- 
tance of  the  shipping  wharf. 

Maryland. — In  the  vicinity  of  Broad  Creek,  in  Harford 
County,  in  this  State,  occurs  a  very  large  deposit  of  serpentine, 
which  is  described  by  Professor  Genth  f  substantially  as 
follows  : 


*  Geology  of  Delaware,  1841,  p.  35. 

f  Geological  Report  of  the   Maryland  "  Verde  Antique "    marble,   etc.,   in 
Harford  County,  Md.,  by  Prof.  F.  A.  Genth,  1875. 


.    STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  6 1 

"  The  outcrop  of  the  first  or  upper  bed  of  green  serpentine, 
of  about  500  feet  in  thickness,  can  be  traced  by  its  outcrop 
almost  the  whole  distance  between  the  upper  ford  on  Broad 
Creek  and  over  the  hill  in  a  northeasterly  direction  to  a  ravine 
on  the  same  creek,  a  distance  of  about  1,800  feet ;  it  also 
crosses  the  creek  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  but  it  has  not 
been  ascertained  how  far  it  extends.  The  outcrop  of  the 
second  bed  was  measured  on  the  top  of  the  hill  between  the 
horseshoe  of  Broad  Creek,  and  found  to  be  about  180  feet, 
and  it  is  very  conspicuous  on  the  west  side  of  the  creek.  Its 
full  extent  was  not  determined.  The  rock  is  a  variety  of  mass- 
ive serpentine  somewhat  resembling  williamsite,  and  shows 
sometimes  a  slightly  slaty  structure.  It  occurs  in  various  shades 
from  a  pale  leek-green  to  a  deep  blackish  green,  and  from  a 
small  admixture  of  magnetic  iron,  more  or  less  clouded  ;  rarely 
with  thin  veins  of  dolomite  passing  through  the  mass.  It  is 
translucent  to  semi-transparent,  exceedingly  tough  and  its 
hardness  is  considerably  greater  than  that  of  marble."  An 
analysis  of  the  deep-green  variety  gave  the  following  results : 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Silicic  acid 40.06       Magnesia 39.02 

Alumina 1.37       Water 12.10 

Chromic  oxide 0.20       Magnetic  iron 3.02 

Niccolous  oxide 0.71 

Ferrous  oxide 3.43  oo.oo 

Manganous  oxide 0.09 

Specific  gravity  2.668,  which  denotes  a  weight  of  i66f  pounds 
per  cubic  foot,  or  practically  the  same  as  granite.  Specimens  of 
this  stone  received  at  the  National  Museum  admitted  of  a  very 
high  lustrous  polish,  the  colors  being  quite  uniformly  green, 
slightly  mottled  with  lighter  and  darker  shades.  It  is  not  a 
true  verde  antique  in  the  sense  in  which  this  name  was  origin- 
ally employed.  So  far  as  can  be  judged  from  appearances, 


62  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

this  is  a  most  excellent  stone,  and  admirably  suited  for  interior 
decorative  work. 

About  6  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Baltimore,  at  a  locality 
known  as  the  Bare  Hills,  occurs  an  outcrop  of  a  coarse  light- 
green  serpentine  covering  many  acres.  The  rock  is  quite 
porous,  of  a  dull  light-green  color,  and  unfitted  for  any  kind  of 
ornamental  work,  but  admirably  suited  for  general  building, 
especially  in  rock-faced  and  rubble  work. 

At  the  time  of  the  writer's  visit,  in  the  summer  of  1885,  but 
a  single  quarry  had  been  opened,  and  this  was  not  at  the  time 
in  operation.  The  material  had  been  used  with  excellent  effect 
in  the  construction  of  a  school-house  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 
The  stone  occurs  in  the  form  of  low  rounded  masses  or  bosses, 
and  is  regarded  by  Dr.  G.  H.  Williams  as  an  altered  peridotite.* 
The  supply  is  inexhaustible.  Portions  of  the  rock  carry  a  very 
considerable  amount  of  chrome  iron,  which  was  at  one  time 
mined  here  quite  extensively.  In  the  quarry  the  rock  occurs 
in  a  very  badly  jointed  condition,  and  the  blocks  are  rounded 
and  irregular.  Firm  blocks  several  feet  in  length,  which  cut  up 
readily  into  sizes  suitable  for  house  walls  and  similar  purposes, 
can,  however,  be  obtained. 

Massachusetts. — Serpentine  exists  in  Massachusetts  in  great 
abundance,  particularly  in  the  Hoosac  mountain  range.  "  The 
most  extensive  bed  occurs  in  Middlefield,  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  town.  This  bed  can  not  be  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
in  breadth  and  5  or  6  miles  long.  The  colors  of  the  rock  are 
various  and  its  hardness  unequal.  If  wrought,  it  might  supply 
the  whole  world.  It  yields  both  the  precious  and  the  common 
varieties.  There  is  another  bed  in  the  same  town,  associated 
with  steatite  or  soapstone.  In  the  west  part  of  Westfield  and 
extending  into  Russell  is  found  another  extensive  bed  of  this 

*Bulletin  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  No.  28. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  63 

rock  of  a  much  darker  color  and  containing  green  talc.  This 
has  been  used  in  a  few  instances  for  ornamental  architecture, 
and  has  a  rich  appearance  when  wrought. 

"  Three  beds  of  serpentine  are  found  in  Blanford  and  another 
in  Pelham,  in  the  southwest  part  of  the  town.  The  color  of 
this  last  is  dark,  and  the  quantity  of  the  talc  is  considerably 
large.  A  large  bed  occurs  in  connection  with  soapstone  on  the 
north  side  of  Deerfield  River,  in  Zoar,  near  the  turnpike  from 
Greenfield  to  Williamstown.  Specimens  from  this  place  re- 
semble those  from  the  celebrated  localities  of  this  rock  at 
Zoblitz,  in  Saxony."  Two  beds  of  serpentine  exist  also  at 
Windsor,  in  this  State. 

"  A  locality  of  noble  or  precious  serpentine  has  long  been 
known  to  exist  in  Newbury,  2^  miles  south  of  Newburyport, 
at  an  abandoned  lime  quarry  called  the  '  Devil's  Den.'  Only 
small  masses  can  be  here  obtained,  but  when  polished  they 
will  compare  with  any  in  the  world  for  beauty.  Perhaps  the 
most  interesting  and  important  bed  of  this  rock  that  has  as  yet 
been  found  in  the  State  is  that  at  Lynnfield,  in  Essex  County. 
The  bed  has  been  traced  from  a  point  near  the  center  of  the 
town  some  2  or  3  miles  in  a  northeasterly  direction."*  When 
first  quarried  the  stone  is  said  to  be  so  soft  that  it  can  be  cut 
with  a  handsaw  and  very  readily  turned  on  a  lathe. 

New  Jersey. — A  beautiful  deep-green  and  oil  yellow,  often 
translucent  serpentine,  occurs,  associated  with  dolomite,  at 
Montville,  in  this  State.  Only  pieces  of  small  size  are  obtain- 
able, and  though  of  exceptional  beauty  the  stone  has  never 
been  utilized  except  for  cabinet  specimens. 

The  stone  has  been  shown  by  the  writer  to  result  from  the 
alteration  of  segregation  masses  of  a  non-aluminous  pyroxene 
imbedded  in  the  dolomite.f 

*  Hitchcock's  Geology  of  Massachusetts,  Vol.  I.,  p.  158. 
f  Proceedings  U.  S.  National  Museum,  1885,  p.  105. 


64  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

New  Mexico. — A  banded  and  mottled  light  and  dark  green 
impure  serpentinous  rock  occurs  in  the  form  of  a  narrow 
dike  just  north  of  the  Gila  River,  about  half  way  between 
Silver  City  and  the  Arizona  line  in  this  territory.  The  colors 
are  good,  and  the  stone  seems  well  adapted  for  both  orna- 
mental work  and  general  building.  It  is  known  commercially 
as  ricolite,  from  the  Spanish  word  rico,  rich,  in  allusion  to  its 
rich  green  color.  .  The  following  analysis,  if  correct,  shows  the 
the  stone  to  be  much  more  impure  than  one  would  be  led  to 
suppose  from  a  casual  inspection : 

Silica 43. 

Alumina i6.< 

Magnesia 23.; 

Water I 

Lime 2.22$ 

Soda  and  Potash 2.30$ 

Iron  oxides . . . .  • traces. 

Total 99.98$ 

A  closely  related  and  very  unique  rock  which  may  answer 
well  for  certain  forms  of  ornamentation  also  occurs  in  this 
vicinity.  The  main  mass  of  this  rock,  so  far  as  the  writer  has  seen 
it,  is  composed  of  a  finely  granular  pyroxenic  mineral  of  a  deli- 
cate light  blue  color.  Throughout  this  are  scattered  irregular 
sporadic  areas  of  yellowish  green  serpentine  resulting  from  the 
hydration  of  the  pyroxene.  The  effect  is  decidedly  unlike 
anything  I  have  seen  elsewhere,  and  the  developments  of 
the  quarry  may  be  awaited  with  interest.* 

New  York. — At  Moriah  and  Port  Henry,  in  Essex  County,, 
in  this  State,  there  has  been  quarried  from  time  to  time  under 

*  The  writer  is  indebted  to  Mr.  J.  H.  Huntington  for  whatever  information 
he  possesses  relative  to  these  stones. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  65 

the  name  of  ophite  marble,  a  peculiar  granular  stone  consisting 
of  an  intimate  mixture  of  serpentine,  dolomite  and  calcite  inter- 
spersed with  small  flecks  of  phlogopite.  This  stone,  which  is 
an  altered  dolomitic  and  pyroxenic  limestone,*  seems  nearly 
free  from  the  numerous  dry  seams  and  joints  that  prove  so 
objectionable  in  most  serpentines,  and  can  be  obtained  in  sound 
blocks  of  fair  size.  The  serpentinous  portions  are  deep  green 
in  color,  while  the  calcareous  granules  are  faint  water  blue,  or 
whitish,  affording  a  very  pleasing  contrast.  In  certain  of  the 
outcrops  a  mineral  of  the  pyrite  group  occurs,  which  is  of 
course  deleterious,  as  liable  to  oxidation,  and  it  is  said  to  be  the 
presence  of  this  mineral  that  led  to  the  abandonment  of  some 
of  the  older  quarries.  Other  reasons  have  doubtless  contri- 
buted. Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  fact  that  at  few 
of  the  openings,  as  seen  by  the  writer,  can  blocks  of  large  size 
and  homogeneous  texture  be  obtained,  every  few  feet  showing 
large  and  irregular  nodules  of  deep  greenish  and  yellowish 
serpentine,  calcite,  or  white  pyroxene,  and  often  large  scales  of 
graphite,  which  would  prove  nearly  as  objectionable  on  a 
polished  surface  as  do  the  dark  patches  in  many  of  our  granites. 
Blocks  being  quarried  at  the  time  of  my  visit  (1888)  showed, 
however,  a  very  even  granular  texture  of  nearly  equal  parts  of 
serpentine,  calcite  and  dolomite  in  grains  of  from  one  eighth 
to  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  forming  an  aggregate 
quite  granitic  in  appearance  at  a  slight  distance.  The  stone 
polishes  well,  and  is  said  to  be  durable.  In  the  quarry  bed, 
where  the  stone  had  been  exposed  for  ages,  it  was  noticed  that 
the  calcite  had  weathered  out  on  the  surface,  leaving  the 
serpentine  protruding  in  small  greenish  knobs.  The  stone  has 
been  quoted  in  some  of  the  older  quarry  price-lists  at  $6.00  a 
cubic  foot  for  the  best  monumental  stock. 

*  Proceedings  U.  S.  National  Museum,  Vol.  XII.,  1889,  p.  595. 


66  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

In  Warren  County  a  stone  of  this  same  general  nature  occurs, 
and  which  has  in  times  past  been  quarried  near  the  town  of 
Thurman.  This  stone,  as  shown  by  samples  in  the  National 
Museum,  is  composed  of  about  equal  parts  snow-white  calcite 
and  light  yellowish-green  serpentine  in  flecks  and  patches  from 
one-sixteenth  to  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  text- 
ure, as  in  the  Essex  County  stone,  is,  however,  by  no  means 
uniform,  and  the  large  blocks  frequently  show  large  and  very 
irregular  patches  of  deep  lustrous  green  serpentine  with  snow- 
white,  and  still  unaltered  pyroxenic  nuclei,  the  serpentine  here, 
as  is  the  case  with  that  of  Montville,  (New  Jersey,)  and  the  last 
mentioned,  being  secondary  after  a  non-aluminous  pyroxene. 
Geologically  these  beds  are  of  interest  as  having  furnished  frag- 
mental  remains  of  the  once-problematic  organism,  the  so-called 
Eozoon  Canadense.* 

It  is  stated  f  that  the  largest  and  most  valuable  deposit  of 
serpentine  in  the  State  is  found  in  the  towns  of  Gouverneur, 
Fowler,  and  Edwards,  in  St.  Lawrence  County.  The  rock  is 
said  to  be  massive  and  sound,  and  remarkably  free  from  the 
checks  and  flaws  usually  so  profusely  developed  in  rocks  of  this 
class.  In  Pitcairn,  in  the  same  county,  there  is  also  a  fine  de- 
posit of  serpentine  of  the  variety  commonly  called  precious. 
The  calcareous  spar  is  white  or  grayish-white,  and  forms  a 
handsome  background  for  the  translucent  serpentine.  The 
quality  of  the  rock  is  said  to  be  excellent  and  free  from  natural 
flaws  and  fissures. 

Serpentine  also  forms  the  main  range  of  hills  on  St'aten 
Island,  and  extends  from  New  Brighton  to  a  little  west  of 
Richmond,  a  distance  of  8  miles.  The  rock  assumes  a  variety 
of  colors,  from  almost  black  to  nearly  white. 

*  See  on  the  Ophiolite  of  Thurman,  Warren  County,  New  York,  with  remarks 
Dn  the  Eozoon  Canadense,  by  the  writer  in  American  Journal  of  Science  for 
March,  1889. 

f  Geology  of  New  York,  1838,  p.  205. 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND    DECORATION.  6? 


North  Carolina. — The  massive  varieties  of  serpentine  are 
found  in  many  localities.  The  best  appears  to  come  from  the 
neighborhood  of  Patterson,  Caldwell  County.  It  has  a  dark, 
greenish-black  color,  and  contains  fine  veins  of  the  yellowish- 
green  fibrous  and  silky  chrysotile,  and  admits  of  a  fine  polish ; 
greenish-gray  massive  serpentine,  also  with  seams  of  greenish 
and  grayish  white  chrysotile  is  found  at  the  Baker  mine  in  Cald- 
well County,  at  which  place  are  also  found  the  varieties  mar- 
molite  and  picrolite  ;  this  last  also  occurs  abundantly  in  the 
Buck  Creek  corundum  mine,  Clay  County.  Dark  green  ser- 
pentine has  been  observed  in  the  neighborhood  of  Asheville,  in 
Buncombe  County,  in  Forsythe  and  Wake  Counties.  A  grayish 
or  yellowish  green  serpentine  occurs  in  Caldwell,  Wilkes,  Surry, 
Yancey,  Stokes,  Orange,  and  Wake  Counties,  and  in  the  chryso- 
lite beds  of  Macon,  Jackson,  Yancey,  Mitchell,  Watanga,  Burke, 
and  other  counties.  It  results  from  the  decomposition  of  the 
chrysolite.* 

The  writer  has  seen  but  a  single  sample  of  these  rocks,  and 
hence  can  express  no  opinion  regarding  their  value. 

Pennsylvania. — Serpentine  is  a  common  rock  in  several  coun- 
ties in  the  southeastern  part  of  this  State,  but  so  far  as  the 
writer  is  aware  none  of  the  outcrops  furnish  material  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  be  suitable  for  decorative  work.  A  small  area  of 
the  stone  occurs  in  the  extreme  southeastern  part  of  Bucks 
County  ;  three  lines  of  outcrops  occur  in  the  southwestern  part 
of  Montgomery  County,  passing  through  Lower  Merion  into 
Delaware  County  near  Radnor.  From  the  southern  corner  of 
this  township  numerous  isolated  outcrops  occur  throughout  a 
broad  belt  extending  southwesterly  through  the  townships  of 
Marble,  Newtown,  Middletown,  Providence,  Aston,  Concord, 
and  Birmingham.  In  the  words  of  the  State  Geologist,  "A 
serpentine  belt  extending  from  Chester  Creek,  at  Lenni  (or 

*  Geology  of  North  Carolina,  1881,  p.  57. 


68  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

Rockdale),  past  Media  to  Darby  Creek  in  Radnor  township 
(nine  miles)  has  been  quarried  for  building  stone.  It  consists 
of  separate  and  parallel  outcrops;  at  least  twenty-seven  other 
local  exposures  of  serpentine  in  various  townships  are  marked 
upon  the  map,  all  of  them  in  the  Chestnut  Hill  schist  area,  and 
apparently  belonging  to  the  upper  part  of  that  series."*  A 
long  range  of  serpentine  is  also  found  in  Williston  and  East 
Goshen  townships  in  Chester  County,  and  a  still  more  exten- 
sive belt  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  county,  in  Elk 
and  Nottingham  townships.  This  last  extends  over  into  Lan- 
caster County,  where  there  are  two  belts  separated  by  a  belt  of 
schist,  the  southernmost  "  running  along  the  Maryland  line  and 
holding  the  famous  Woods  chrome  mine,  which  at  one  time 
produced  all  the  chrome  in  the  world,  and  in  busy  times  as 
high  as  500  tons  a  month.  The  serpentine  is  here  unstratified, 
1000  yards  wide,  striking  N.  78  E.  with  sandy  chloritic  slates 
north  of  it  and  hornblendic  gneiss  and  syenite  south  of  it." 

In  Lower  Merion  township  (Montgomery  County),  the  ser- 
pentine has  been  quarried  from  exposures  near  the  Philadelphia 
and  Reading  Railroad.  The  rock  here  is  compact,  dark  green- 
ish in  color,  and  suited  only  for  general  building.  It  is  associ- 
ated with  steatite  and  is  regarded  by  Mr.  T.  D.  Rand  f  as 
resulting  from  the  alteration  of  an  enstatite  rock  as  is  also  that 
of  Radnor  township. 

Of  the  areas  above  mentioned  those  of  Chester  County 
have  so  far  proven  most  important  from  our  standpoint,  and 
extensive  quarries  have  for  some  years  been  worked  near  the 
town  of  West  Chester.  The  stone  here,  as  usual,  occurs  only 
in  a  badly  jointed  condition  (see  illustration  plate  III.),  but 
owing  to  its  softness,  and  consequent  readiness  with  which  it 

*  Geol.  Surv.  of  Penna.,  Rep.  x.,  Geol.  Atlas  and  Counties,  p.  XLVII. 
\  Annual.  Report  Pennsylvania  Geological  Survey,  1886,  Part  iv. 


PLATE  III. 


SERPENTINE  QUARRIES,  CHESTER  COUNTY,  PENNSYLVANIA. 

To  face  page  68. 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  69 

can  be  worked,  it  has  come  into  very  general  use  for  building 
purposes,  particularly  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore, 
Washington  and  Chicago.  The  buildings  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  some  twenty 
churches  in  Philadelphia,  are  of  this  stone. 

The  use  of  the  stone  in  cities  has  not  been  long  enough 
continued  to  furnish  accurate  data  regarding  its  durability,  but 
it  is  stated  that  houses  erected  in  the  vicinity  of  the  quarries 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  show  the  color  of  the  stone 
to-day  as  fresh  as  when  first  quarried.  The  writer's  personal 
observations  are,  however,  to  the  effect  that  in  a  majority  of 
cases  many  of  the  blocks  exposed  in  a  wall  turn  whitish,  or  at 
least  fade  to  a  lighter  green.  Such  a  change  can  scarcely  be 
considered  detrimental. 

Although  the  stone  has  been  upon  the  general  market  only 
about  ten  years  it  has  acquired  an  excellent  reputation.  To 
the  writer  it  seems  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  very  poor 
taste  has  been  shown  on  the  part  of  the  designers,  very 
many  of  the  buildings  being  anything  but  beautiful  from  an 
architectural  standpoint.  The  almost  universal  practice  of 
using  a  light,  yellowish-gray  sandstone  for  the  trimmings  in 
houses  of  this  material  should  also  be  condemned,  since  the 
contrast  is  not  sufficient  nor  satisfactory. 

The  origin  of  the  Chester  County  stone,  as  with  serpentines  in 
general,  has  been  a  subject  of  considerable  discussion.  As  long 
ago  as  1862  Dr.  Genth*  advanced  the  opinion  that  the  Texas, 
Lancaster  County,  stone  originated  by  the  alteration  of  asbes- 
tus.  Prof.  Frazer,f  in  his  work  on  the  geology  of  southeast- 
ern Pennsylvania  considered  it  as  a  modification  of  the  Huron- 


*  American  Journal  of  Science  (2)  33,  p.  202. 

f  Theses  Presentees  a  la  Faculte  des  Sciences  de  Lille,  Universite  de  France, 
1882;  also  Rep.  C4  Second  Geol.  Survey  of  Penna.,  1883. 


?O  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

ian  schists  of  the  region.  Prof.  Chester,  however,  who  has 
since  studied  the  rock  with  the  aid  of  the  microscope  and  thin 
sections,  regards  it  as  derived  from  a  tremolite  rock  carrying 
accessory  olivine,  the  tremolite  itself  being  secondary  after 
pyroxene,  and  the  rock  mass  as  a  whole  eruptive  through  the 
Azoic  schists,  rather  than  an  integral  part  of  that  formation.* 

A  beautiful  and  deep  lustrous  green  variety  susceptible  of 
a  high  polish  and  known  as  Williamsite  was  found  in  abundant 
small  pieces  during  the  working  of  the  Fulton  township  chrom- 
ite  mines.  Excepting  as  polished  specimens  for  mineral  cabi- 
nets the  material  was  never  utilized. 

A  narrow  belt  of  a  light  oil  yellow  to  deep  green  serpentine 
occurs  associated  with  the  beds  of  limestone  on  the  south- 
western flank  of  Chestnut  Hill,  near  Easton,  in  Northampton 
County.  The  stone  evidently  originated  from  the  alteration 
of  a  white  tremolite  rock  with  which  it  is  associated.!  The 
serpentine  as  here  found  never  occurs  in  masses  of  such  size  as 
to  be  of  economic  value,  though  of  considerable  interest  to 
mineral  collectors. 

Texas. — Serpentine  of  a  dark  green  color  and  fitted  for 
either  building  or  ornamental  work  is  stated  to  occur  on  Crab 
Apple  Creek  in  Gillespie  County.J 

Vermont. — The  bed  of  talcose  schist  that  extends  in  a  gen- 
eral northern  and  southern  direction  throughout  the  entire 
length  of  central  Vermont  bears  numerous  outcrops  of  ser- 
pentine or  of  serpentine  in  combination  with  dolomite,  but 
which,  so  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  have  been  quarried  only 
in  Roxbury  and  Cavendish.  The  quarry  at  Cavendish  was 
worked  very  early,  having  been  opened  about  1835,  before 


*  Annual  Report  Geological  Survey  of  Penna.  for  1887, 

f  Proc.  U.  S.  National  Museum,  Vol.  XII.,  1889,  p.  599. 

J  First  Report  Geological  and  Mineralogical  Survey  of  Texas,  1888,  p.  63. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  /I 

there  were  adequate  means  of  transportation  of  the  quarried 
stone  or  there  was  any  sufficient  demand  for  so  expensive  a 
material.  The  methods  of  working  and  polishing  the  stone 
were,  moreover,  so  little  understood  that  very  poor  results  were 
obtained  and  the  works  were  shortly  discontinued  as  a  conse- 
quence. 

In  Roxbury  the  American  Verdantique  Marble  Company 
early  opened  quarries  and  erected  a  mill  for  sawing.  The 
business  was  pushed  quite  vigorously  for  a  time  ;  but,  owing  to 
several  causes,  probably  the  same  as  the  first  enumerated,  the 
works  were  shut  down  in  1858,  and  have  not  since  been  re- 
opened. A  considerable  quantity  of  the  material  was  taken 
out  for  the  interior  decorations  of  the  United  States  Capitol 
extensions,  but  for  some  reason  it  was  never  used. 

The  Roxbury  stone  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  all  our 
serpentines  and  the  best  adapted  for  all  kinds  of  interior  deco- 
rative work.  The  colors  are  deep,  bright  green,  traversed  by 
a  coarse  net-work  of  white  veins.  It  is  designated  by  Hunt* 
an  ophiolite,  and  is  stated  by  him  to  be  a  mixture  of  serpen- 
tine, talc,  and  ferriferous  carbonate  of  magnesia.  It  acquires 
a  smooth  surface  and  beautiful  polish,  and  it  is  a  serious  com- 
ment upon  American  taste  that  there  is  not  sufficient  demand 
for  the  material  to  cause  the  quarries  to  be  re-opened.  At 
Cavendish  the  railroad  now  passes  within  one-half  mile  of  the 
quarry  and  good  water-power  is  close  at  hand,  while  the  Rox- 
bury quarry  is  within  30  rods  of  the  railway  station.  The  rock 
lacks  the  brecciated  structure  characteristic  of  most  foreign 
verd-antique,  but  compares  more  closely  with  the  variety  known 
as  Verde  di  Genova  than  with  any  other  with  which  the 
author  is  acquainted.  Among  the  other  localities  in  this  State 

*  T.  S.  Hunt,  on    Ophiolites,  American  Journal  of   Science,   vol.  xxv.   p. 
239  ;  second  series,  p.  226. 


72  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

in  which  serpentine  occurs  may  be  mentioned  Richford,  Mont- 
gomery, Jay,  Troy,  Lowell,  Middlesex,  Wailsfield,  Warren, 
Rochester,  Ludlow,  Windham,  Wadsborough,  and  Dover. 

Of  the  Lowell  stone  it  is  stated  *  that  two  ranges  of  serpen- 
tine occur,  commencing  near  the  headwaters  of  the  Missiseo 
and  extending  nearly  to  Canada.  "  For  the  richness  and  num- 
ber of  the  varieties  it  would  not  seem  possible  that  they  can 
be  surpassed,  while  their  extent,  amounting  to  20  or  30  square 
miles,  is  beyond  the  possible  demand  of  all  future  ages.  They 
are  exhibited  in  several  precipitous  ledges,  which  are  easy  of 
access  and  of  being  worked." 

Concerning  the  locality  at  Troy,  the  same  authority  states : 
"  Elegant  varieties  are  numerous,  among  which  are  most  con- 
spicuous the  very  bright  green  noble  serpentine,  which  covers 
most  of  the  numerous  jointed  faces  with  a  coat  of  one-eighth 
to  one-half  of  an  inch  thick,  and  the  spotted  varieties.  Num- 
erous seams  may  render  it  difficult  to  obtain  large  slabs,  but 
smaller  pieces,  suitable  for  a  great  variety  of  ornamental  pur- 
poses, may  be  obtained,  of  great  beauty  and  in  any  quantity." 

(3)   FOREIGN   SERPENTINES. 

Canada. — Serpentine  of  a  pale  green  color,  marked  with 
spots  and  clouds  of  a  rich  brown  due  to  disseminated  iron  pro- 
toxide, and  forming  a  fine  ornamental  stone  occurs  in  Gren- 
ville  and  in  Burgess  in  the  Province  of  Quebec.  Other  rocks 
of  this  class  occur  in  the  towns  of  Melbourne,  Orford,  St. 
Joseph,  and  at  Mt.  Albert  in  Gaspe.f  So  far  as  the  author  is 
aware,  these  have  been  as  yet  but  little  quarried,  though  seem- 
ingly very  promising. 

England. —  None  of  the  American  serpentinous  rocks  now 

*  Geology  of  Vermont,  1861,  vol.  I.  p.  544. 
f  Geology  of  Canada,  1863. 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  73 

known  can  compare  in  point  of  beauty,  in  variety  and  ele- 
gance of  colors,  with  those  of  the  Lizard  district  in  Cornwall, 
England.  A  series  of  polished  blocks  of  these  in  the  national 
collections  at  Washington  show  the  prevailing  colors  to  be 
dark  olive  green  with  veins,  streaks,  and  blotches  of  greenish 
white,  chocolate  brown,  and  blood  red.  The  green  varieties 
are  often  spotted  by  ill-defined  flakes  of  a  "  silky  bronzitic 
mineral." 

The  rock  is  softer  than  the  serpentine  of  Harford  County, 
Maryland,  but  takes  an  equally  good  surface  and  polish,  and 
works  much  more  readily.  It  is  stated  by  Hull*  to  be  obtain- 
able in  blocks  from  7  to  8  ,feet  in  length  and  from  2  to  3  feet 
in  diameter.  According  to  this  same  authority,  the  stone  is 
admirably  adapted  for  interior  decorations  and  is  now  being 
used  for  ornamental  fonts,  pulpits,  small  shafts,  and  pilasters, 
as  well  as  for  vases,  tazza,  and  inlaid  work. 

Considering  the  remarkable  beauty  and  the  variety  of 
colors  displayed  by  this  stone,  it  seems  strange  that  it  should 
not  have  found  its  way  more  extensively  into  American  mar- 
kets. 

The  rock  is  regarded  by  Bonneyf  as  an  altered  intruded 
igneous  rock,  rich  in  olivine  (peridotite). 

Ireland. — The  only  Irish  serpentines  which  have  achieved 
any  notoriety  in  America,  are  the  so-called  Connemara  greens 
and  which  occur  according  to  Mr.  G.  H.  Kinahanj:  only  in  the 
west  of  County  Galway.  These  are  classed  by  this  authority 
as  ophiolites  and  ophicalcites.  They  vary  in  color  from  light 
to  dark  green,  either  uniform  or  clouded,  the  majority  being 
variously  mottled,  streaked,  and  variegated.  The  rocks  occur 

*  Building  and  Ornamental  Stones,  p.  102. 
f  Quar.  Jour.  Geol.  Soc.  of  London,  1877,  p.  884. 

$  Economic   Geology  of  Ireland.     Jour.   Royal   Geol.  Society  of   Ireland, 
vol.  vin.  (new  series),  part  II.  p.  152. 


74  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

in  one  group  of  strata,  once  continuous,  but  now  more  or  less 
disconnected  and  isolated  by  faulting.  In  Streamstown  Bay 
Valley  is  a  continuous  narrow  band  of  the  rocks  over  three 
miles  in  length,  and  which  furnishes  a  great  variety  of  beautiful 
material  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  brooches  and  various 
articles  of  vertu. 

The  stone  found  in  the  American  market  seems  to  have 
been  brought  from  quarries  near  Lissoughter,  in  this  county. 
The  rock  here  is  in  general  uniform  or  clouded  green,  some  of 
it  being  dark,  but  at  the  same  time  translucent.  Very  good- 
sized  stones  are  obtainable,  but  in  rough  unshapely  blocks. 
The  largest  column  yet  obtained  from  these  quarries  measured 
nine  feet  nine  inches  in  length,  and  is  in  the  mansion  of  Lord 
Ardilann,  at  St.  Anne's,  County  Dublin. 

Writing  of  these  stones  Mr.  Kinahan  says  that  at  one  time 
there  was  a  considerable  demand  for  the  Connemara  greens, 
"  but  unfortunately  for  the  reputation  of  the  stone,  architects 
would  insist  on  using  them  for  outside  decorations,  and  con- 
sequently, not  through  any  real  inferiority  in  the  stones,  they 
soon  weathered  and  became  unsightly.  Thus  was  generated  a 
most  undeserved  prejudice  against  the  green  marbles,  which 
when  used  in  their  proper  sphere  as  inside  work,  cannot  be  sur- 
passed in  beauty  or  elegance." 

Italy. — The  principal  serpentinous  rocks  of  Italy  are  the 
ophicalcites  of  Pegli  and  Pietra  Lavezzara,  near  Genoa,  and  of 
Levante,  and  the  true  serpentine  of  Tuscany.  The  Verde  di 
Pegli  is  a  breccia  consisting  of  deep  green  fragments  of  serpen- 
tine cemented  by  light  green  calcite.  The  contrast  of  colors 
thus  produced  is  said  to  be  very  pleasing.  The  Verde  di 
Geneva  stone  from  quarries  at  Pietra  Lavezzara  is  also  a. 
breccia  consisting  of  green,  blackish  green,  brown,  or  red  ser- 
pentine fragments  with  an  abundant  cement  of  white  or  green- 
ish calcite.  It  has  been  quarried  from  time  immemorial,  and 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  ?$ 

is  largely  used  in  France  where  it  is  known  as  Vert  de  Genes. 
Its  selling  price  at  Turin  is  about  20  cents  per  cubic  foot.  The 
ophicalcite  of  Levante  is  a  breccia  like  the  preceding,  the  frag- 
ment being  of  a  violet  or  wine  red  color.  It  is  difficult  to 
work  but  acquires  a  good  polish.  The  Italian  name  for  the 
stone  is  rosso  or  Verde  di  Levante;  though  sometimes  called 
granito  di  Levante.  The  Tuscany  serpentine  from  quarries 
near  Prato  is  known  commercially  as  Verde  di  Prato.  The 
stone  is  of  a  deep  green  color,  carrying  crystals  or  nodules  of 
diallage  and  is  traversed  by  a  net-work  of  fine  lines  giving  it  a 
brecciated  appearance.  It  contains  also  veins  of  noble  serpen- 
tine of  a  clear  greenish  or  whitish  color.  It  is  softer  than 
ordinary  serpentine  and  acquires  only  a  dull  polish,  but  works 
very  readily.  The  dark  green  variety  is  most  valued,  and 
having  been  used  in  ancient  monuments  is  frequently  called 
the  Nero  antico  di  Prato.*  This  stone  is  stated  by  Hull  to  be 
subject  to  rapid  decay  when  exposed  to  atmospheric  influences. 


GYPSUM :  ALABASTER. 

This  can  scarcely  be  considered  a  building-stone,  and  it  is 
used  only  to  a  small  extent  for  ornamental  purposes.  We 
may,  however,  devote  a  little  space  to  the  subject. 

(l)  COMPOSITION  AND  USES  OF  GYPSUM. 
Pure  gypsum  is  composed  of  the  sulphate  of  lime  and  water 
in  the  proportions  of  about  79.1  per  cent  of  the  former  to  20.9 
per  cent  of  the  latter  (ante,  p.  26).  Three  varieties  are  com- 
mon :  (i)  crystallized  gypsum  or  selenite,  which  occurs  in 
broad,  flat,  transparent  plates  sometimes  a  yard  in  diameter 
and  of  value  only  as  mineral  specimens  and  for  optical  pur- 

*  Delesse,  pp.  77-79. 


76  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

poses ;  (2)  fibrous  gypsum,  which  includes  the  variety  satin 
spar  used  for  making  small  ornaments  ;  and  (3)  massive  gyp- 
sum, which  includes  the  common  white  and  clouded  varieties 
used  in  making  plaster,  and  the  pure,  white,  fine-grained  variety 
alabaster.* 

(2)   LOCALITIES    OF   GYPSUM    IN   THE   UNITED    STATES. 

The  principal  -localities  of  gypsum  in  the  United  States  as 
given  by  various  authorities  are  in  New  York,  Ohio,  Illinois, 
Iowa,  Michigan,  Virginia,  Tennessee,  Arkansas,  and  Texas, 
where  it  occurs  in  extensive  beds  and  usually  associated  with 
salt  springs.  It  is  also  found  associated  with  Triassic  deposits 
in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region.  Handsome  selenite  and  snowy 
gypsum  are  also  stated  to  occur  near  Lockport  and  Camillus, 
N.  Y.,  in  Davidson  County,  Tennessee,  and  in  the  form  of 
rosettes  in  the  Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky. 

According  to  G.  F.  Kunzf  the  ornaments  of  satin  spar  sold 
at  Niagara  Falls  and  other  "  tourist  places  "  are  nearly  all  im- 
ported from  Wales,  through  some  few  of  the  common  white 
variety  are  cut  from  the  beds  of  this  stone  found  in  the  vicin- 
ity. The  Italian  alabaster  is  used  extensively  in  making  stat- 
uettes, but  the  common  varieties  found  in  this  country  and 
Nova  Scotia  are  used  chiefly  for  land  plaster  and  as  plaster  of 
paris,  or  stucco.  So  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  the  gypsum 
quarried  at  Fort  Dodge,  Iowa,  is  the  only  one  that  has  been 
at  all  used  for  structural  purposes  in  this  country. 

According  to  Dr.  White  ;f  several  residences,  a  railway  sta- 
tion, and  other  minor  structures,  including  a  large  culvert, 
have  been  built  of  gypsum  at  this  place.  In  the  construction 

*  Much  of  the  material  popularly  called  alabaster  is  in  reality  travertine 
(see  p.  116). 

f  Min.  Resources  of  the  United  States,  1883-84,  p.  77. 
^  Geol.  of  Iowa,  vol.  II.  p.  302. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  7/ 

of  the  culvert  the  lower  courses  that  came  in  contact  with  the 
water  were  of  limestone,  as  the  gypsum  had  proven  slightly 
soluble  and  hence  less  durable  in  such  positions.  The  stone  is 
regarded  by  Dr.  White  as  very  durable  in  ordinary  situations, 
and  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  worked  renders  it  preferable 
to  the  limestones  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  The  method  of 
quarrying  is  to  bore  holes  with  a  common  auger  and  then 
blast  by  means  of  powder.  The  blocks  are  then  trimmed  to 
the  proper  size  and  shape  by  means  of  common  wood-saws 
and  hatchets  or  axes. 

(3)   FOREIGN   GYPSUM   AND   ALABASTER. 

England. — An  English  alabaster,  white,  variously  clouded 
and  streaked  with  dull  brownish  red  has  been  introduced  into 
the  New  York  markets,  and  has  been  used  in  the  bank  coun- 
ters of  the  Equitable  Building  on  lower  Broadway.  The  stone 
is  altogether  too  soft  for  use  in  such  exposed  situations.  It  is 
said  to  be  from  quarries  in  Devonshire. 

Italy. — Alabaster  of  the  finest  quality  occurs  in  several 
parts  of  Italy,  particularly  at  Miemo,  in  Tuscany,  Fontibagni, 
and  Castellina,  and  at  Aosta,  in  Piedmont.  The  purest  and  best 
variety  is,  however,  from  Valdi  Marmolago,  near  Castellina.* 
Some  of  these  are  very  extensively  worked,  the  clouded  vari- 
eties being  made  into  vases  and  other  objects,  while  the  pure 
white  varieties  are  made  into  statuettes.  In  this  form  they  are 
sold  in  considerable  quantities  in  this  country,  passing  under  the 
name  of  Florentine  marbles.  As  prepared  for  the  market  these 
are  indistinguishable  from  true  marble  by  any  but  an  expert, 
and  it  is  safe  to  say  a  large  number  of  people  are  yearly  impos- 
ed upon.  Should  one  have  reason  to  suppose  that  this  article 
is  being  imposed  upon  him  for  true  marble  he  has  but  to  try 

*  Hull,  op.  cit.  p.  165 


78  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 


the  object  in  some  obscure  part  with  the  thumb-nail.  Alabas- 
ter is  readily  scratched  or  indented  in  this  manner  while  marble 
is  not  affected.  Another  test  is  to  apply  a  dilute  acid.  True 
marble  will  dissolve  and  effervesce  briskly,  while  the  alabaster 
remains  unchanged.  Besides  being  softer,  and  hence  more 
liable  to  injury,  these  alabaster  objects  are  inferior  to  those  of 
marble  in  that  they  are  more  easily  soiled  and  are  difficult  to 
cleanse. 

It  is  stated*  that  the  Italian  alabaster  is,  when  first  quarried 
semi-transparent,  and  that  it  is  wrought  while  in  this  state.  It 
is  then  rendered  white  and  opaque  (like  marble)  by  placing  the 
objects  in  a  vessel  of  cold  water  which  is  slowly  raised  to  the 
boiling  point.  It  is  then  allowed  to  cool  to  a  temperature  of 
about  70°  or  80°  Fahr.  when  the  objects  are  moved  and  wiped 
dry.  At  first  they  appear  little  changed  by  their  baptism,  but 
gradually  assume  the  desired  color  and  opacity. 

Spain. — Beautiful  white  and  variegated  alabaster  occurs  in 
the  province  of  Guadalajara  and  Saragossa. 


LIMESTONES   AND    DOLOMITES. 

(l)  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  AND  ORIGIN. 
The  name  limestone  as  commonly  applied  is  made  to 
include  a  large  and  widely  varying  group  of  rocks,  differing 
from  one  another  in  color,  texture,  structure  and  origin  and 
with  but  the  one  property  in  common  of  consisting  essentially 
of  carbonate  of  lime.  A  pure  limestone  should  consist  only  of 
carbonate  of  lime.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  none  of  our  nat- 
ural stones  are  chemically  pure,  but  all  contain  a  greater  or  less 
amount  of  foreign  material  either  chemically  combined  or  as 
admixed  minerals.  The  more  common  of  these  foreign  sub- 

*  Appleton's  Dictionary  of  Mechanics,  vol.  n.  p.  387. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  79 

stances  are  carbonate  of  magnesia,  carbonates  and  oxides  of 
iron,  silica,  clay,  bituminous  matter,  mica,  talc  and  minerals  of 
the  hornblende  or  pyroxene  groups.  The  presence  of  these 
substances  gives  rise  to  a  variety  of  shades  and  colors  among 
which  water-blue,  green,  yellow,  pink,  red,  and  all  shades  of 
gray  to  black  are  common.  The  yellow,  pink  and  red  colors  in 
such  cases  are  due,  as  a  rule,  to  iron  oxides,  while  the  various 
shades  of  blue-gray,  gray  and  black  are  due  to  the  carbona- 
ceous matter  derived  from  organic  remains.  The  green  color  of 
some  of  the  Vermont  marbles  appears  to  be  due  to  the  presence 
of  talc. 

Limestones  are  ordinarily  regarded  as  originating  as  chemi- 
cal deposits,  or  from  the  consolidation  of  calcareous  remains 
of  marine  animals.  Many  beds,  as  for  instance  the  Indiana 
oolites,  are  products  of  a  combination  of  these  processes.  The 
shells  of  dead  mollusks,  corals  and  crinoids  were  tumbled  about 
by  the  waves  until  ground  into  grains  of  calcareous  sand,  about 
and  around  each  of  which  were  subsequently  deposited  from 
solution  the  successive  coats  of  lime  as  shown  in  Fig.  2  on. 
Plate  II.  It  is  very  probable  that  few  of  our  limestones  were 
wholly  derived  directly  from  organic  remains,  but  are  in  part  at 
least  chemical  deposits.  The  alternation  of  beds  of  snow-white, 
blue-gray,  greenish  and  almost  black  layers,  as  in  the  Vermont 
quarries  may  perhaps  be  best  explained  on  the  assumption  that 
the  white  layers  resulted  as  deposits  from  solution,  while  the 
darker  layers  are  but  beds  of  indurated  shell  mud  and  sand 
colored  by  the  organic  impurities  they  contained  at  the  time 
they  were  first  laid  down. 

Limestones  occur  in  stratified  beds  among  rocks  of  all 
geological  ages,  from  the  Archaean  to  the  most  recent.  The 
majority  of  those  used  for  building  and  ornamental  work 
belong  either  to  the  Cambrian,  Silurian,  Devonian,  or  Carbo- 
niferous ages. 


So  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


(2)  VARIETIES  OF  LIMESTONES  AND  DOLOMITES. 

The  following  list  includes  all  the  principal  varieties  of 
limestone  popularly  recognized,  the  distinctions  being  founded 
upon  their  structure,  chemical  composition,  and  mode  of 
origin  : 

Crystalline  limestone.  Marble. — A  crystalline,  granular  ag- 
gregate of  calcite  crystals.  The  crystals  are  usually  of  quite 
uniform  size  in  the  same  marble,  but  often  vary  widely  in  those 
from  different  localities.  The  fine  grained  white  varieties 
which  appear  like  loaf  sugar  are  called  saccharoidal.  Common 
statuary  marble  is  a  good  example  of  this  variety. 

Compact  Common  Limestone. — A  fine-grained  crystalline  ag- 
gregate which  to  the  eye  often  appears  quite  homogeneous  and 
amorphous.  It  is  rarely  pure,  but  contains  admixtures  of  other 
minerals,  giving  rise  to  many  varieties,  to  which  particular 
names  are  given.  Lithographic  Limestone  is  an  extremely  fine- 
grained crystalline  magnesian  limestone,  with  a  small  amount 
of  impurities,  and  of  a  drab  or  yellowish  hue.  Bituminous  lime- 
stone  contains  a  considerable  proportion  of  bitumen,  caused  by 
decomposing  animal  or  vegetable  matter.  Its  presence  is  easily 
recognized  by  the  odor  of  petroleum  given  off  when  the  rock 
is  freshly  broken.  Hydraulic  limestone  contains  10  per  cent 
and  upward  of  silica,  and  usually  some  alumina.  When  burned 
into  lime  and  made  into  mortar  or  cement  it  has  the  property 
of  setting  under  water.  Oolitic  limestones  are  made  up  of  small 
rounded  concretionary  grains  that  have  become  cemented  to- 
gether to  form  a  solid  rock.  These  little  rounded  grains  re- 
semble the  roe  of  a  fish  ;  hence  the  name,  from  the  Greek  word 
MOV,  an  egg.  Where  the  grains  are  nearly  the  size  of  a  pea  the 
rock  is  called  pisolite. 

'    Travertine,  or  Calc  Sinter,  is  limestone  deposited  by  run- 
ning streams  and  springs.     It  occurs  in  all  gradations  of  texture 


Sl'ONES  FOR  BUILDING   AND   DECORATION.  8 1 

from  light  flaky  to  a  compact  rock  fit  for  building.  A  light 
porous  calc  sinter  has  been  deposited  by  the  Mammoth  Hot 
Springs  of  Yellowstone  National  Park,  some  of  which  is  nearly 
pure  carbonate  of  lime  and  snowy  white  in  color.  Travertine 
occurs  in  great  abundance  at  Tivoli,  in  Italy,  from  whence  it 
was  quarried  in  building  ancient  Rome.  The  exterior  of  the 
Amphitheatrum  Flavium,  or  Colosseum,  the  largest  theatre 
the  world  has  ever  known,  was  of  this  stone,  as  was  also  the 
more  modern  structure  of  St.  Peter's,  in  the  same  city.*  The 
Latin  name  of  the  stone  was  lapis  Tiburtinus,  of  which  the 
word  travertine  is  supposed  to  be  a  corruption. 

Stalactite  and  stalagmite  are  the  names  given  to  the  deposits 
of  limestone  on  the  roofs  and  floors  of  caves.  Such  are  often 
beautifully  crystalline  and  colored  by  metallic  oxides,  giving 
rise  to  beautiful  marbles,  which  are  incorrectly  called  onyx,  as 
are  also  the  travertines  from  which  they  differ  only  in  method- 
of  deposition. 

Fossilferous  Limestones. — Many  limestones  are  made  up  whol- 
ly or  in  part  of  the  fossil  remains  of  marine  animals,  as  is  shown 
in  the  accompanying  figure  (p.  82),  which  is  drawn  from  a  mag- 
nified section  of  a  limestone  of  the  Cincinnati  group  from  near 
Hamilton,  Ohio. 

In  some  cases  the  remains  are  retained  nearly  perfect ;  again 
the  entire  fossil  may  have  been  replaced  by  crystalline  calcite. 
In  other  instances  stones  are  found  which  are  made  up  only 
of  casts  of  shells,  the  original  shell  material  having  decayed  and 
disappeared,  as  in  the  Eocene  limestone  from  North  Carolina. 
Many  of  the  most  beautiful  marbles  belong  to  the  group  of 
fossil  limestones,  as,  for  instance,  the  red  and  white  variegated 
Tennessee  marbles.  Crinoidal  limestones  are  made  up  of  fossil 
crinoidal  fragments. 

t  Hull,  Building  and  Ornamental  Stones,  pp.  279,  281. 


82 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


Shell  limestones  or  shell  sand-rocks  as  they  are  called  by  some 
authorities,  are  made  up  of  shells  usually  much  broken,  though 
sometimes  almost  entire.  The  well-known  coquina  from  Saint 
Augustine,  Florida,  is  a  good  illustration  of  this  variety.  Coral 


rock  is  of  the  same  nature,  excepting  that  it  is  composed  of 
fragments  of  corals.  Chalk  is  a  fine  white  limestone  composed 
largely  of  the  minute  shells  of  foraminifera. 

Magnesian  Limestones ;  also  called  Dolomitic  Limestones. — 
Under  this  head  are  included  those  limestones  which  contain 
10  per  cent  and  upwards  of  carbonate  of  magnesia.  They 
may  be  finely  or  coarsely  crystalline  ;  light,  porous,  or  com- 
pact ;  fossiliferous  or  non-fossiliferous  ;  in  short,  may  show  all 
the  variations  common  to  ordinary  limestones,  from  which 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  83 

they  can  usually  be  distinguished  only  by  chemical  tests.  Many 
marbles  are  magnesian,  as  will  be  noticed  by  reference  to  the 
tables.  When  the  carbonate  of  magnesia  in  a  limestone  rises 
as  high  as  45.65  per  cent  the  rock  is  no  longer  called  magnesian 
limestone,  but — 

Dolomite.* — This  in  its  typical  form  is  a  crystalline  granular 
aggregate  of  the  mineral  dolomite,  and  is  usually  whitish  or 
yellowish  in  color.  It  can  in  its  typical  form  be  distinguished 
from  limestone  by  its  increased  hardness  (3.5-4.5)  and  specific 
gravity  (2.8-2.95).  It  is  also  less  soluble,  being  scarcely  at  all 
acted  on  by  dilute  hydrochloric  acid.  Dolomite  shows  all  the 
peculiarities  pertaining  to  limestones,  both  in  color  and  texture, 
and  a  chemical  analysis  is  often  required  to  distinguish  between 
them.  The  pure  white  marble  from  Cockeysville,  Maryland,  is 
a  dolomite,  but  by  the  eye  alone  can  scarcely  be  distinguished 
from  the  white  crystalline  limestones  (marbles)  of  Vermont. 
The  red-mottled  marbles  of  Malletts  Bay,  Vermont,  are  also 
dolomites,  as  are  the  white  marbles  of  Lee,  Massachusetts,  and 
Pleasantville,  New  York. 

In  composition  there  is  no  essential  difference  between  a 
limestone  or  dolomite  and  what  is  popularly  called  a  marble, 
but  for  convenience  sake  the  subject  will  be  here  treated  in 
two  parts,  the  first  to  include  such  of  this  class  of  rocks  as  are 
put  upon  the  market  as  marbles,  and  the  second  the  rocks  of 
the  same  composition,  but  unfit  for  finer  grades  of  building  and 
ornamental  work  and  known  popularly  as  simply  limestones. 

(3)   LIMESTONES  AND   DOLOMITES.      MARBLES. 

Under  the  head  of  marbles,  then,  are  here  included  all  those 
rocks  consisting  essentially  of  carbonate  of  lime  (limestone)  or 

*So  called  after  the  French  geologist,  Dolomieu. 


84  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

.carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia  (magnesian  limestone  and  dol- 
omite) that  are  susceptible  of  receiving  a  good  polish  and  are 
suitable  for  ornamental  work. 

Alabama. — Beds  of  marble  of  great  beauty  are  stated  to 
occur  along  the  Cahawba  River  in  Shelby  County  of  this  State. 
The  colors  enumerated  are  gray  with  red  veins,  red  and  yellow, 
buff  with  fossils,  white  crystalline,  clouded  with  red  and  black. 
A  black  variety  veined  with  white  occurs  on  the  road  from 
Pralls  Ferry  to  Montevallo  and  on  Six  Mile  Creek.  Other 
good  beds  are- stated  to  occur  on  the  Huntsville  road  about  19 
miles  from  Tuscaloosa  and  at  Jonesborough,  the  latter  rock 
being  compact  and  of  a  red  and  white  color  ;  the  same  strata 
occurs  at  Village  Springs.  On  Big  Sandy  Creek  good  marbles 
occur  similar  to  those  on  the  Cahawba.*  None  of  the  above 
are  actively  quarried,  and  the  writer  has  had  the  opportunity 
of  examining  but  a  single  specimen,  that  a  small  block  of  fine 
and  even  texture,  pure  white  color  and  excellent  quality,  said 
to  be  from  near  Talladega. 

Arkansas. — According  to  Professor  Brannerf  marbles  occur 
throughout  the  northern  part  of  this  State..  They  are  of  Lower 
Silurian  age,  and  vary  in  color  from  red  to  light  pink,  mottled 
and  white.  The  beds  are  from  ten  to  one  hundred  or  more 
feet  in  thickness.  They  begin  in  Independence  County  about 
twenty  miles  northeast  of  Batesville,  and  cross  the  State  west- 
ward and  northward  in  a  belt  nearly  or  quite  three  miles  wide. 
This  belt  passes  just  north  of  Batesville,  north  of  Mountain 
View,  north  of  Marshall  and  on  west  by  way  of  St.  Joe  into 
Boone  and  Carroll  Counties. 

On  the  banks  of  some  of  the  streams  traversing  this  region 
great  perpendicular  walls  of  these  marble  beds  are  exposed. 


*  Geology  of  Alabama,  First  Biennial  Report,  1849,  p.  45. 
f  Stone,  Indianapolis,  Indiana,  Oct.  1880. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  85 


Such  exposures  occur  on  White  River  where  the  stone  might 
be  quarried  advantageously  and  loaded  upon  boats.  These 
stones  can  be  obtained  in  blocks  as  large  as  can  be  handled, 
while  their  colors  make  them  desirable  both  for  architectural 
and  ornamental  purposes.  The  ease  with  which  they  can  be 
quarried  and  dressed  is  also  in  their  favor. 

At  present  railroad  facilities  for  transportation  are  almost 
entirely  lacking. 

California. — It  has  been  stated  that  owing  to  the  violent 
geological  agencies  that  have  been  in  operation  since  the  for- 
mation of  the  marble  deposits  in  this  State  the  stones  are 
found  to  be  so  broken  and  shattered  in  nearly  every  case,  that 
it  is  impossible  to  obtain  blocks  of  large  size  free  from  cracks 
and  flaws.*  The  State  is  nevertheless  not  lacking  in  desirable 
material. 

Near  Indian  Diggings,  in  Eldorado  County,  there  occurs  a 
fine-grained  white,  blue-veined  marble  that  closely  resembles 
the  Italian  bardiglio,  from  the  Miseglia  quarries,  but  that  the 
groundmass  is  lighter  in  color.  It  has  been  used  only  for 
grave-stones  and  to  but  a  slight  extent  at  that.  In  Kern 
County  are  deposits  of  marble  of  various  shades,  but  all  so 
broken  and  shattered  on  the  surface  as  to  be  very  difficult  to 
work. 

Near  Colfax,  in  Placer  County,  are  also  beds  of  a  dark  blue- 
gray  mottled  magnesian  limestone  that  takes  a  good  polish  and 
might  be  utilized  as  marble.  Other  deposits  occur  in  Los 
Angeles,  Monterey,  Nevada,  Butte,  Humboldt,  Tuolumne  and 
Plumas  Counties.  At  Colton,  in  Los  Angeles  County  the 
marble  beds  are  described  by  Prof.  Jacksonf  as  affording  pure 
white  clouded  with  gray  and  grayish  black  finely  mottled  with 


*  Report  of  Tenth  Census,  1880,  vol.  x.  p.  279. 

\  Seventh  Annual  Report  State  Mineralogist  of  California,  1887,  p.  212. 


86  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

white  varieties,  the  clouded  white  being  the  most  abundant. 
This  is  stated  to  be  a  medium  grained  granular  stone,  homo- 
geneous in  texture  quite  sound  and  strong  and  taking  a  good 
polish.  Chemical  tests  show  that  the  stone  is  composed  of  a 
mixture  of  calcite  and  dolomite  granules.  This  not  only 
renders  the  production  of  a  perfect  surface  and  polish  more 
difficult  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case,  but  will  also  cause  it 
to  weather  unevenly  (see  p.  381).  The  clouding  of  the  marble 
and  the  dark  gray  colors  are  here  due  to  scales  of  graphite. 

At  the  foot  of  the  Inyo  Mountains  in  Inyo  County,  about 
five  miles  north  of  the  town  of  Keller,  there  occurs  an  extensive 
bed  of  dolomite  in  which  within  a  few  years  marble  quarries 
have  been  opened.  The  strata  here  are  upturned  at  an  angle 
of  75°  to  80°  and  the  beds  superficially  seamed  and  cracked  to 
such  an  extent  that  large  blocks  on  the  immediate  surface  are 
unobtainable.  Although  the  quarry  openings  are  as  yet  shal- 
low the  indications  are,  however,  that  these  defects  soon  disap- 
pear, and  at  no  great  depths  sound  blocks  of  any  size  that  can 
be  handled  may  be  obtained.* 

The  stone  at  the  various  outcrops  now  exposed  is  quite 
variable.  At  one  of  the  openings  it  is  pure  snow  white,  fine 
grained  and  equal  in  texture  to  Italian  marble,  but  much  harder, 
firmer  and  more  compact.  But  a  few  hundred  yards  from  this 
is  an  opening  which  seems  destined  to  furnish  some  of  the 
most  unique  and  yet  beautiful  stone  thus  far  produced  in 
America.  In  texture  this  is  of  the  same  quality  as  the  last, 
but  the  white  groundmass  is  injected  in  every  direction  with 
blotches,  streaks  and  finely  divided  branching  and  feathery 
dark  brown  nearly  black  dendritic  or  fern-like  markings — 
presumably  caused  by  oxide  of  manganese — and  which  added 
to  occasional  blotches  of  Siena  yellow  produce  an  effect  that 


*  Tenth  Annual  Report  State  Mineralogist,  1890. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  87 


must  be  seen  to  be  appreciated.  Still  a  third  variety  is  Siena 
yellow  of  varying  shades.  This  last  while  nearer  the  true 
Italian  Siena  than  any  now  produced,  differs  in  being  distinctly 
granular  in  texture,  and  can  perhaps  be  more  correctly  com- 
pared with  the  well-known  Estremoz,  or  so-called  Lisbon  yellow 
from  Alemtejo  Province,  Portugal. 

A  fine  grained  black  marble  is  also  found  in  the  near  vicin- 
ity, which,  while  it  does  not  polish  well  may  answer  for  floor 
tiling. 

The  Inyo  marbles  are  perhaps  among  the  most  promising 
the  west  has  as  yet  produced.  Chemically  they  are  a  very  pure 
dolomite,  close  grained  and  compact,  and  equally  well  adapted 
for  exterior  and  interior  work.  Their  superior  hardness  will 
cause  a  greater  expense  in  working  than  in  the  eastern  or  Ital- 
ian marbles,  but  whether  these  items  will  not  be  more  than 
counterbalanced  by  cost  of  transportation  the  future  only  can 
decide.  The  quarries  are  on  steep  hillsides  quite  devoid  of 
timber  or  soil,  and  cost  of  fuel  necessitates  the  transportation 
of  the  rough  blocks  to  Essex,  Nevada,  a  distance  of  some  miles, 
before  they  can  be  sawn. 

Chemical  analysis  made  at  the  laboratories  of  the  State 
Mining  Bureau  yielded  54.25$  carbonate  of  lime,  44.45$  car- 
bonate of  magnesia,  and  but  0.60$  of  iron  and  silica.  Specific 
gravity  2.80,  which  is  equal  to  a  weight  of  179^  pounds  per 
cubic  foot. 

Near  Plymouth  in  Amador  County  there  are  said  to  be 
white  and  variegated  marbles  suitable  for  general  building,  but 
of  too  coarse  a  grain  for  decorative  work. 

White  marble  occurs  in  the  mountains  near  San  Jacinto  in 
San  Diego  County.  Good  stone  is  described*  as  occurring  in 
San  Bernardino  County,  near  Slover  Mountain.  This  last  has 

*  Eighth  Annual  Report  State  Mineralogist  of  California,  1888,  p.  504. 


88  'STONES  FOR  BUILDING   AND   DECORATION. 

been  worked  for  the  San  Bernardino  market.  Massive  arago- 
nite  suitable  for  ornamental  work  also  occurs  here.  It  is  de- 
scribed as  most  beautifully  striped  and  banded  in  various  colors. 
This  and  other  of  the  so-called  onyx  and  serpentinous  marbles 
are  more  fully  described  elsewhere. 

Colorado. — No  marbles  are  as  yet  quarried  in  this  State,  but 
the  National  collections  show  a  small  piece  of  a  black,  white- 
veined  breccia  from  Pitkin  that  might  rival  the  imported 
"  Portoro  "  from  the  Monte  d'Arrna  quarries  in  Italy,  if  occur- 
ring in  sufficient  abundance.  Concerning  the  extent  and  char- 
acter of  the  formation  the  author  knows  nothing.  In  the 
marble  yards  of  Denver  the  author  was  shown  during  the  sum- 
mer of  1886  a  fine  chocolate-colored  stone,  somewhat  resemb- 
ling the  more  uniform  colors  of  Tennessee  marble,  which  was 
stated  to  have  been  brought  from  near  Fort  Collins,  in  Laramie 
County,  where  it  occurred  in  great  quantities  ;  also  a  fair  grade 
of  white  blue-veined  marble  from  Gunnison  County.  A  beau- 
tiful breccia  marble  is  stated*  to  occur  in  abundance  a  few 
miles  north  of  Boulder  City. 

Prof.  Newberry  states  f  that  on  Yule  Creek,  a  branch  of 
Crystal  River,  in  a  series  of  massive  gray  Palaeozoic  limestones 
there  is  a  belt  of  white  marble  apparently  superior  in  quality 
to  anything  found  elsewhere  in  the  United  States.  The  mar- 
ble belt  is  stated  as  being  about  100  feet  in  thickness,  and  not 
less  than  six  miles  in  length.  The  prevailing  colors  are  pure 
white  or  white  slightly  clouded  with  gray.  On  the  east  side 
of  the  belt  some  of  the  layers  are  of  a  very  beautiful  blue  or 
dove  color.  "  So  far  as  can  be  judged  from  exposures,  much 
of  this  deposit  deserves  to  be  classed  as  statuary  marble,  and 
some  of  it  is  apparently  equal  to  that  taken  from  the  quarries 
at  Carrara,  Italy,  or  the  Grecian  Parian  or  Pentellic  marbles." 

.*  Biennial  Report  of  State  Geologists  of  Colorado,  1880,  p.  33. 
f  School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  vol.  x.  No.  i,  1888,  p.  71. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  89 

Connecticut. — In  the  northern  part  of  Litchfield  County, 
near  the  Massachusetts  line,  in  the  town  of  Canaan,  East 
Canaan,  and  Falls  Village,  there  occur  massive  beds  of  a 
coarsely  crystalline  white  dolomite,  which  have  in  years  past 
furnished  valuable  building  marbles,  though  recently  they  have 
been  but  little  worked.  The  stone  is  said  to  weather  well  and 
to  be  obtainable  in  large  blocks  eminently  suited  for  building, 
but  like  the  Lee  (Mass.)  dolomite  it  frequently  contains  crystals 
of  white  tremolite,  which  weather  out  on  exposure.  It  is 
therefore  not  so  well  suited  for  finely  finished  or  monumental 
work.  The  State-house  at  Hartford  is  the  most  important 
structure  yet  made  from  this  material. 

As  elsewhere  noted  it  was  at  Marble  Dale,  in  the  town  of 
Milford  in  this  State,  that  marble  quarrying  was  first  systemat- 
ically undertaken  in  this  country,  and  at  one  time  (1830)  not 
less  than  fifteen  quarries  were  in  active  operation  in  the  vicin- 
ity. So  far  as  can  be  learned  not  a  single  one  of  these  is  now 
being  worked. 

Delaware. — No  marbles  are  at  present  quarried  in  this 
State,  but  a  coarse  white  dolomite  is  found  near  Hockessin, 
New  Castle  County.  This,  so  far  as  can  be  judged  from  the 
single  specimen  examined,  might  be  used  for  general  building, 
though  not  well  suited  for  ornamental  work. 

Georgia. — An  important  belt  of  marble  is  said  to  extend 
through  the  counties  of  Cherokee,  Pickens,  Gilmer,  and  Fannin 
in  the  northern  part  of  this  State,  the  material  varying  in  color 
from  pure  white  through  blue  and  variegated  varieties,  some  of 
which  are  remarkably  beautiful.  Variegated  marbles  also 
occur  in  the  counties  of  Polk,  Floyd,  Whitfield,  Catoosa,  Chat- 
tooga,  Gordon,  Murray,  Barton,  and  Walker ;  chocolate-red 
varieties  similar  to  the  marbles  of  Tennessee  are  said  to  occur 
in  abundance  in  Whitfield  County,  the  bed  in  Red  Clay  Valley 
extending  in  uninterrupted  continuity  for  10  miles,  and  varying 


cp          STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

from  one-fourth  to  one-half  a  mile  in  width.*  Of  the  beds 
above  mentioned  those  in  Pickens  and  Cherokee  Counties  are 
at  present  the  most  important  and  the  only  ones  that  have 
been  worked  to  any  extent,  quarrying  having  quite  recently 
been  commenced  here  by  various  companies.  These  marbles 
are  of  uniform  texture,  but  much  coarser  than  the  Vermont 
marble,  which  in  other  respects  they  resemble.  They  are  soft, 
work  readily,  and  acquire  an  excellent  surface  and  polish.  In 
color  they  vary  from  snow  white  and  pink  to  black  and  white 
mottled.  The  pink  variety  is  unique  as  well  as  beautiful,  and 
there  is  at  present  nothing  like  it  produced  in  other  parts  of 
the  country,  though  in  color  it  closely  resembles  the  pink  mar- 
ble from  Cherokee  and  Macon  Counties,  North  Carolina,  to  be 
noticed  later.  It  is,  however,  coarser. 

Chemical  tests  show  these  stones  to  be  nearly  pure  calcium 
carbonate,  quite  free  from  admixtures  of  other  minerals.  They 
can  apparently  be  depended  on  to  weather  uniformly.  Pres- 
sure tests  made  at  the  Watertown  arsenal  on  six-inch  cubes 
gave  maximum  results  of  12,078  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

The  ready  working  qualities  of  these  stones,  the  fact  that 
owing  to  the  mildness  of  the  climate  the  works  can  be  in  opera- 
tion at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  together  with  the  remoteness  of 
regions  where  similar  marbles  are  produced,  all  point  to  a  rapid 
development  of  an  extensive  quarrying  industry  in  this  part  of 
the  country. 

Idaho. — Marble  sufficient  to  supply  the  local  demand  for 
cemetery  work  is  stated  to  be  quarried  at  Spring  Basin,  Cassia 
County,  in  this  State. 

Iowa. — The  calcareous  rocks  of  Iowa  are,  as  a  rule,  non- 
crystalline,  dull  in  color,  and  with  few  qualities  that  render 
them  desirable  for  ornamental  purposes.  But  few  of  them  are 

*  Commonwealth  of  Georgia,  p.  135. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  9 1 

pure  limestone,  but  nearly  all  contain  more  or  less  magnesia, 
iron,  or  clayey  matter ;  very  many  of  them  are  true  dolo- 
mites. 

Near  Charles  City,  in  Floyd  County,  on  the  banks  of  Cedar 
River,  are  extensive  quarries  in  the  Devonian  (Hamilton)  beds 
of  magnesian  limestones,  certain  strata  of  which  furnish  a  coral 
marble  at  once  unique  and  beautiful.  The  prevailing  color  of 
the  stone  is  light  drab,  but  the  abundant  fossils  vary  from  yel- 
lowish to  deep  mahogany  brown.  These  last,  which  belong 
to  the  class  of  corals  called  Stomatophora,  are  very  abundant 
and  of  all  sizes  up  to  18  inches  in  diameter.  As  seen  on  a  pol- 
ished surface  imbedded  in  the  fine,  drab,  non-crystalline  paste 
of  the  groundmass,  they  present  an  appearance  totally  unlike 
anything  quarried  elsewhere  in  America — an  appearance  at 
once  grotesque  and  wonderfully  beautiful.  The  stone  admits 
of  a  high  polish,  and  would  seem  excellently  adapted  for  all 
manner  of  interior  decorations,  if  obtainable  in  blocks  suffi- 
ciently uniform  in  texture.  A  small  amount  of  argillaceous 
matter  and  scattering  particles  of  amorphous  pyrite,  which  are 
occasionally  visible,  render  its  adaptability  to  outdoor  work 
decidedly  doubtful.  The  stone  is  known  commercially  as 
Madrepore  marble.  A  polished  slab  2  by  4  feet  is  in  the 
collections  of  the  National  Museum. 

The  light  yellowish,  buff,  or  brown  sub-Carboniferous  mag- 
nesian limestone,  quarried  near  Le  Grand  in  Marshall  County, 
also  contains  massive  layers  beautifully  veined  with  iron  oxide, 
and  which  are  suitable  for  ornamental  purposes,  though  it  is 
not  considered  suitable  for  monuments  and  other  work  subject 
to  continuous  exposure.  I  have  not  seen  samples  of  this  ma- 
terial, though  it  is  well  spoken  of  by  White.*  It  is  popularly 
known  as  Iowa  marble.  The  only  other  stone  which,  so  far 

*  Geology  of  Iowa,  vol.  u.  p.  313. 


92  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND    DECORATION. 

as  I  am  aware,  has  ever  been  utilized  for  ornamental  purposes 
is  the  so-called  "  Iowa  City,"  or  "  Bird's-eye  marble."  This  is 
nothing  more  than  fossil  coral  "  (Acervularia  Davidsoni)  imbed- 
ded in  the  common  Devonian  limestone  and  often  perfectly 
consolidated  by  carbonate  of  lime  so  that  it  may  be  polished 
like  ordinary  marble.  When  so  polished  its  appearance  is  very 
beautiful,  for  the  whole  internal  structure  of  the  coral  is  as  well 
shown  as  it  is  in  living  specimens,  and  yet  it  is  hard  and  com- 
pact as  real  marble."  The  stone  would  be  valuable  could  it 
be  obtained  in  blocks  of  large  size.  Unfortunately  it  occurs  in 
pieces  of  but  a  few  pounds'  weight  ;  it  is  used  therefore  only 
for  paper-weights,  and  small  ornaments  of  various  kinds. 

Maryland. — The  principal  marble  quarries  of  this  State  are 
located  near  Cockeysville  and  Texas,  some  16  miles  north  of 
Baltimore,  on  the  Northern  Central  Railroad.  Here  there 
occurs  a  small  and  isolated  area  of  Lower  Silurian  (?)  dolo- 
mite of  medium  texture  and  white  color  that  has  been  very 
extensively  used  for  general  building  purposes  in  Baltimore, 
Washington,  and  the  neighboring  towns,  and  to  a  less  ex- 
tent in  Philadelphia.  In  the  quarries  the  stone  lies  in  large 
horizontal  masses,  and  blocks  28  by  10  by  3  feet  have  been 
quarried  entire.  This  stone  was  used  in  the  construction  of 
Christ  Church  in  Baltimore,  the  Washington  Monument  and 
the  columns  and  heavy  platforms  of  the  Capitol  extensions  at 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Near  Union  Bridge,  in  Frederick  County,  there  occurs  a 
fine-grained  and  compact  white  magnesian  limestone,  but 
which  has  not  been  quarried  to  any  extent. 

The  only  true  conglomerate  or  breccia  marble  that  has 
ever  been  utilized  to  any  extent  in  the  United  States  is  found 
near  Point  of  Rocks,  Frederick  County,  in  this  State.  The 
rock,  which  belongs  geologically  to  the  Triassic  formations,  is 
composed  of  rounded  and  angular  fragments  of  all  sizes,  up  to 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  93 

several  inches  in  diameter,  of  quartz  and  magnesian  limestone 
imbedded  in  a  fine  gray  calcareous  groundmass.  This  com- 
position renders  the  proper  dressing  of  the  stone  a  matter  of 
some  difficulty,  since  the  hard  quartz  pebbles  break  away  from 
the  softer  parts  in  which  they  lie,  leaving  numerous  cavities  to 
be  filled  with  colored  wax  or  shellac.  It  should  therefore 
never  be  worked  with  hammer  and  chisel,  but  only  with  saw 
and  grinding  material,  and  no  attempt  made  at  other  than 
plain  surfaces.  The  stone  was  used  for  the  pillars  in  the  old 
Hall  of  Representatives  in  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  and  a 
polished  slab  34  inches  long  by  20  inches  wide,  may  be  seen  in 
the  National  Museum  at  Washington.  The  pebbles  forming 
the  stone  are  of  so  varied  shades  that  to  state  its  exact  color  is 
a  matter  of  difficulty.  Red,  white,  and  slate-gray  are  perhaps 
the  prevailing  tints.  On  account  of  its  locality  this  stone  has 
been  popularly  called  "  Potomac "  marble,  or  sometimes 
calico  marble,  in  reference  to  its  structure  and  spotted  ap- 
pearance. The  formation  from  whence  it  is  derived  is  said  to 
commence  near  the  mouth  of  the  Monocacy  River,  and  to  ex- 
tend along  the  Potomac  to  Point  of  Rocks,  and  along  the 
valley  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Catoctin  Mountain  to  within 
2  miles  of  Frederick.  The  writer  is  informed,  moreover,  that 
the  same  formation  occurs  in  Virginia,  near  Leesburgh,  and 
that  here  the  quartzose  pebbles  are  almost  entirely  lacking, 
thereby  rendering  the  stone  much  less  difficult  to  work. 

Massachusetts. — Crystalline  limestones  and  dolomites  of  such 
a  character  as  to  assume  the  name  of  marble  are  now  or  have 
been  in  times  past  quarried  in  various  towns  of  Berkshire 
County,  in  this  State.  The  stones  are  all  white  or  some  shade 
of  gray  color,  medium  fine-grained  in  texture,  and  are  better 
adapted  for  general  building  than  for  any  form  of  ornamental 
work. 

The  quarries  at  Lee  were  opened  in  1852,  and  the  stone  has 


94  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

been  used  in  the  Capitol  extension  at  Washington  and  the  new 
city  buildings  in  Philadelphia  ;  but  little  of  it  has  been  used  for 
monuments.  In  the  quarries  the  stone  lies  very  massive,  and 
it  is  stated  cubes  20  feet  in  diameter  could  be  obtained  if 
necessary.  The  Sheffield  quarries  were  opened  about  1838. 
The  rock  here  is  massive,  with  but  little  jointing.  Natural 
blocks  40  feet  square,  and  3  feet  in  thickness  can  be  obtained. 
The  Alford  stone  is  used  mostly  for  monumental  work,  and  ap- 
pears very  durable.  Much  of  the  marble  from  these  localities 
contains  small  crystals  of  white  tremolite  which  weather  out  on 
exposure,  leaving  the  rock  with  a  rough  pitted  surface.  This 
is  very  noticeable  in  the  exterior  walls  of  the  Capitol  building 
at  Washington,  already  noted. 

Missouri. — The  writer  has  seen  but  few  true  marbles  from 
this  State,  though  colored  marbles  of  fine  quality  equalling  the 
variegated  varieties  of  Tennessee  are  reported  by  Professor 
Broadhead  as  occurring  in  Iron,  Madison,  and  Cape  Girardeau 
Counties.  The  Iron  County  stone  is  reported  as  light  drab  in 
color,  with  buff  veins.  The  outcrop  occupies  an  exposure  of 
several  hundred  feet  of  a  low  bluff  on  Marble  Creek  near  the 
east  line  adjoining  Madison  County.  The  Madison  County 
marble  occurs  near  Fredericktown,  and  is  described  as  the  best- 
appearing  marble  in  the  State,  both  in  regard  to  color  and  tex- 
ture, the  colors  being  red,  peach-blossom,  and  greenish,  beauti- 
fully blended.  The  stone  is  represented  as  very  durable,  but 
liable  to  tarnish  on  a  polished  surface  when  exposed  to  the 
weather.  The  Cape  Girardeau  stone  is  represented  as  of  a 
variety  of  colors — purple,  yellow,  red,  pink,  gray,  and  greenish 
all  being  enumerated  ;  the  supply  is  unlimited.  None  of  these 
marbles  are  at  present  systematically  worked,  owing  to  lack  of 
capital  and  distance  from  market.  Professor  Broadhead  further 
states  that  few  of  the  marble  beds  of  southeastern  Missouri  are 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  95 


thick  enough  to  be  economically  worked,  as  there  would  be  too 
large  a  portion  of  waste  material. 

No  pure  white  crystalline  marbles  are  as  yet  known  to 
occur  within  the  State  limits.  Other  stones  capable  of  receiv- 
ing a  polish  and  suitable  for  marble  are  stated  to  occur  in  the 
counties  of  Saint  Louis,  Saint  Charles,  Warren,  Montgomery, 
Rails,  Galloway,  Lincoln,  Cooper,  Pettis,  Cass,  Jackson,  Living- 
ston, and  Clay.* 

Montana. — This  State  as  yet  quarries  no  marble  of  import- 
ance. There  were  exhibited,  however,  at  the  Centennial,  in 
Philadelphia,  1876,  and  since  then  in  the  National  Museum  at 
Washington,  two  samples  from  Lewis  and  Clarke  County  that 
are  worthy  of  note,  since  they  form  the  nearest  approach  to  the 
imported  Italian  black  and  gold  marble  from  the  Spezzia  quar- 
ries of  any  at  present  found  in  America.  The  rock  is  very 
close  and  compact,  of  a  dark  blue-gray  color,  and  traversed  by 
irregular  wavy  bands  of  varying  width  of  a  dull  chrome-yellow 
color.  So  far  as  observed  the  stone  is  far  inferior  in  point  of 
beauty  to  its  Italian  prototype,  and  apparently  would  prove 
more  difficult  to  work. 

Nevada. — Practically  no  attempts  have  as  yet  been  made 
toward  working  the  marble  deposits  of  this  state,  and  indeed 
very  little  is  known  regarding  their  extent  and  qualities.  Prof. 
Newberryf  states  that  in  the  Tempiute  Mountains,  in  the 
southeastern  part  of  the  State,  there  are  beds  of  limestone  of  a 
great  variety  of  colors  and  textures,  susceptible  of  a  high  polish 
and  scarcely  inferior  in  point  of  beauty  to  any  marble  imported 
from  the  old  world. 

New  Jersey. — At  one  time  extensive  marble  quarries  were 
worked  in  the  outcrops  of  Devonian  limestone  at  Lower  Har- 


*  See  also  Bulletin  No.  I,  Missouri  Geological  Survey,  1890. 
f  School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  No.  i,  vol.  x.  1888,  p.  70. 


96  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

mony  in  Warren  County.  The  stone  is  of  a  grayish  hue,  in 
places  banded  owing  to  alternate  lines  of  light  and  dark  miner- 
als. Nodules  of  hornblende  and  steatite  are  scattered  through 
the  rock,  and  rarely  there  is  pyrite  and  some  graphite.  The 
stone  was  worked  mainly  for  the  Pennsylvania  market. 

A  very  beautiful  stone  known  commercially  as  the  "  Rose 
Crystal  Marble"  has  been  quarried  on  a  subordinate  ridge  of 
the  Jenny  Jump  Mountain  range  in  this  county,  at  the  corner 
of  the  Hope  and  Danville  road,  and  the  road  running  north- 
ward along  the  Great  Meadows. 

The  stone  consists  mainly  of  large  white,  flesh  pink,  and 
rose  colored  crystals  of  calcite  interspersed  with  black  mica,  a 
green  pyroxene  and  occasional  black  tourmalines. 

Its  texture  is  such  that  it  must  be  handled  with  some  care, 
but  it  polishes  well  and  makes  a  beautiful  ornamental  stone  for 
interior  work.  It  is  said  to  have  been  obtainable  in  blocks 
8x3x2  feet  without  seams  or  flaws.*  The  fact  that  the  quarries 
were  situated  seven  miles  from  the  nearest  railroad  may  account 
in  part  for  its  being  no  longer  worked,  but  it  is  a  great  pity 
that  so  beautiful  a  stone  should  not  be  utilized. 

New  York. — The  belts  of  Archaean  dolomite  which  lie  to  the 
north  of  New  York  City  and  cross  the  State  in  a  northeasterly 
direction  furnish  a  very  fair  quality  of  white  and  gray  marbles 
that  have  at  various  times  been  quiet  extensively  utilized.  Of 
these  belts,  one  reaches  New  York  Island,  crossing  the  Har- 
lem River  at  Kings'  Bridge  ;  another  outcrops  on  the  Sound 
near  New  Rochelle ;  others  still  strike  the  Hudson  above  New 
York,  at  Hastings,  Dobbs  Ferry,  Sing  Sing,  etc.  Several  of 
these  beds  furnish  good  marbles  for  building  stone,  gray,  blue, 
or  white,  but  none  that  is  fine  for  decorative  purposes.  The  best 
marbles  yet  obtained  from  the  series  of  deposits  are  those  of 


*  Annual  Report  State  Geologist  of  New  Jersey,  1872. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  97 

Tuckahoe  and  Pleasantville  in  Westchester  County.  The 
Tuckahoe  marble  is  pure  white  in  color,  and  coarser  than  those 
of  New  England  in  general,  notice  elsewhere.  It  is  somewhat 
irregular  in  quality,  but  the  better  grades  are  highly  esteemed 
for  architectural  purposes,  and  have  been  used  in  some  of  the 
finest  buildings  in  New  York  City.  By  exposure  to  the  impure 
atmosphere  of  the  city,  its  color  changes  to  a  light  gray.  This 
is  apparently  due  to  its  coarseness  of  texture,  which  gives  a 
roughness  to  the  surface,  and  causes  the  smoke  and  dust  to  ad- 
here to  it  more  closely  than  they  would  to  a  finer  stone. 

The  dolomite  belt  in  which  the  Pleasantville  marble  quar- 
ries are  situated  is  one  of  the  broadest  known,  being  more  than 
half  a  mile  wide.  It  consists  chiefly  of  beds  of  impure  dolo- 
mite, white  or  banded,  which  contain  too  much  siliceous  matter 
to  be  available  for  building  or  ornamental  purposes,  with  some 
layers,  often  of  a  considerable  thickness,  of  pure  white  marble, 
in  part  similar  to  that  of  Tuckahoe,  and  partly  still  more  coarse- 
ly crystalline.  These  beds  are  more  or  less  interstratified  with 
layers  of  granite  or  gneiss,  the  whole  series  standing  nearly  on 
edge.  The  belt  which  furnishes  the  snowflake  marble  is  about 
one  hundred  feet  wide,  standing  vertical,  and  consists  through- 
out of  pure  white  dolomite,  almost  without  cloud  or  stain,  and 
with  no  foreign  matter.* 

On  account  of  its  coarseness  this  stone  is  not  well  adapted 
for  carved  work  or  for  use  in  long  columns.  The  Tuckahoe 
stone  is  not  quite  so  coarse  in  texture  and  has  been  more  exten- 
sively employed  for  building  purposes.  At  Sing  Sing  and  Do- 
ver Plains  are  other  quarries  of  rather  coarse  white  dolomite 
marble,  but  which  are  not  extensively  worked. 

A  very  coarsely  crystalline  light-gray  magnesian  limestone 
of  Archaean  age  occurs  at  Gouverneur,  in  St.  Lawrence  County. 

*  Newberry,  Report  of  Judges,  vol.  HI.  International  Exposition,  1876. 


98  STOATES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

Although  too  coarse  for  carved  work  it  answers  well  for  mas- 
sive structures,  and,  as  it  acquires  a  good  surface  and  polish,  is 
used  largely  for  monuments  as  well  as  for  building  and  for  or- 
namental work.  It  is  believed  to  be  durable,  since  gravestones 
in  the  vicinity  which  have  been  set  upwards  of  seventy  years 
still  present  clean  and  uniform  surfaces,  and  are  free  from 
lichens  and  discolorations  of  any  kind. 

Two  excellent  varieties  of  colored  marbles  occur  in  the 
Lower  Silurian  formation  at  Plattsburgh  and  Chazy,  in  Clinton 
County,  in  this  State,  and  which  are  commercially  known  as 
"  Lepanto  "  *  and  French  gray.  The  first  consists  of  a  close 
fine-grained  gray  groundmass  with  pink  and  white  fossil  re- 
mains, which  are  evidently  crinoidal.  The  second  is  more  uni- 
formly gray  and  bears  larger  fossils.  It  is  an  excellent  stone, 
and,  with  perhaps  the  exception  of  those  of  Tennessee,  has 
been  used  more  extensively  for  mantels,  table  tops,  tiling,  and 
general  interior  decorative  work  than  any  other  of  our  marbles. 

At  Glens  Falls,  on  the  Hudson  River,  occurs  an  extensive 
deposit  of  dark  blue-black  magnesian  limestone,  certain  strata 
of  which  furnish  the  finest  varieties  of  black  marble  at  present 
quarried  in  this  country.  The  stone  is  very  fine-grained  and 
compact,  and,  when  polished,  of  a  deep,  lustrous  black  color, 
though  the  uniformity  of  the  surface  is  sometimes  broken  by 
the  presence  of  a  small  white  fossil.  A  two-foot  cube  of  this 
stone  is  in  the  National  collections.  The  finest  quality  of  this 
marble  occurs  in  a  single  stratum  some  12  feet  in  thickness. 
The  poorer  qualities  are  burned  for  lime,  of  which  they  furnish 
material  of  exceptional  purity.  Black  marble  is  also  quarried 
to  some  extent  at  Willsborough,  in  Essex  County.  At  Port 
Henry,  in  this  same  county,  there  is  quarried  a  green  and 


*  The  Lepanto  marble  is  figured  in  PI.  xxxn.  of   the  Census  Report,  where 
it  is  wrongly  set  down  as  from  Isle  La  Motte,  Vermont. 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  99 

white  speckled  marbled,  composed  of  an  intimate  mixture  of 
serpentine,  calcite,  and  dolomite  that  has  been  used  for  interior 
decorative  work.  The  stone  has  been  noticed  more  fully  under 
the  head  of  serpentine. 

At  Lockport  there  is  extensively  quarried  a  soft  gray  crinoi- 
dal  Upper  Silurian  limestone  in  which  the  fossils  are  frequently 
of  a  pink  or  bluish  opalescent  color.  It  is  used  to  some  extent 
for  mantels  and  other  ornamental  purposes.* 

In  the  town  of  Warwick,  in  Orange  County,  there  is  found 
a  beautiful,  coarsely  crystalline  marble  of  a  carmine-red  color, 
sometimes  slightly  mottled  or  veined  with  white.  But  little 
of  it  has  been  used  and  the  supply  is  reported  as  small. 

North  Carolina. — Although  no  quarries  of  marble  are  at 
the  present  time  worked  to  any  extent  in  this  State,  there 
occur  within  its  limits  numerous  deposits  of  most  excellent 
material  that  only  require  enterprise  and  capital  to  bring  to  a 
ready  market.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these  is  near  Red 
Marble  Gap,  in  Macon  County.  The  rock  is  a  beautiful  bright 
flesh  pink,  sometimes  blotched  or  striped  with  blue  and  yellow. 
The  texture  is  fine  and  even,  and  it  acquires  an  excellent  sur- 
face and  polish.  The  stone  is  stated  by  Professor  Kerr  to 
occur  in  the  side  of  the  mountain  in  cliffs  150  feet  or  more  in 
height,  and  blocks  of  almost  any  size  can  be  obtained.  It  is 
quite  different  from  anything  now  in  the  market,  and  would 
doubtless  find  a  ready  sale  if  once  introduced.  Other  marbles 
of  white  or  blue-gray  color  occur  in  Murphy,  and  Valley  Town, 
Cherokee  County  ;  Warren  Springs,  Madison  County,  and  near 
Marion,  in  McDowell  County.  Lack  of  transportation  facili- 
ties at  present  is  a  serious  drawback  to  the  introduction  of  any 
of  these  into  our  principal  markets.  I  have  seen,  also,  small 

*  J.  S.    Newberry  in   report  on  building  and  ornamental  stones,   vol.  ill. 
Internationa]  Exhibition  Reports,  p.  158. 


IOO  STOA'ES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION, 

pieces  of  very  compact  deep  blue-black  crystalline  limestone, 
taking  a  high  polish  and  suitable  for  the  finest  grades  of 
ornamental  work  from  near  Nantehaleh,  Swain  County,  in  this 
State.  Portions  of  the  stone  are  traversed  by  a  coarse  net- 
work of  pure  white  calcite  veins  that  greatly  add  to  its  beauty. 

Pennsylvania. — The  belt  of  Lower  Silurian  limestone  that 
extends  from  Sadsbury  and  Bart  Townships,  in  Lancaster 
County,  in  a  general  easterly  direction  through  Chester  Coun- 
ty, and  through  the  western  half  of  Montgomery  County,  in- 
cludes within  its  area  the  only  quarries  of  merchantable  marble 
at  present  worked  within  the  State  limits.  According  to  Pro- 
fessor Rogers'*  this  belt  forms  the  bed  of  a  narrow  valley  some 
58  miles  in  total  length,  extending  from  near  Abington,  in 
Montgomery  County,  to  the  source  of  Big  Beaver  Creek,  in 
Lancaster  County.  The  prevailing  colors  of  the  stone  through- 
out the  larger  portion  of  this  area  are  yellowish  or  bluish,  and 
it  is,  as  a  consequence,  suitable  only  for  making  quicklime  or  for 
ordinary  rough  building  purposes.  On  the  southern  side  of 
the  valley,  however,  between  Brandywine  and  Wissahickon 
Creeks,  the  stone  has  become  highly  metamorphosed  and  con- 
verted into  a  crystalline  granular  marble,  white  or  some  shade 
of  blue  in  color,  though  often  variously  veined  or  mottled.  All 
the  quarries  as  yet  opened  are  situated  in  Montgomery  County, 
on  the  steeply  upturned  or  overturned  edges  of  the  outcrops 
within  half  a  mile  of  the  southern  edge  of  the  formation  be- 
tween Marble  Hall  and  the  Chester  County  line. 

It  is  stated  that  quarries  were  first  opened  here  about  the 
time  of  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  that  up  to  1840  this  stone 
was  the  favorite  and  almost  only  material  used  in  the  better 
class  of  stone  buildings  in  and  about  Philadelphia.  At  about 
the  latter  date  increased  facilities  for  transportation  brought 

*  Report  of  First  Geological  Survey  of  Pennasylvania,  vol.  I.  p    211. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND    DECORATION.  IOI 


the  better  varieties  of  eastern  marbles  and  other  stones  into 
competition  with  it  and  its  use  has  as  a  consequence  consider- 
ably diminished.  Among  the  important  buildings  constructed 
of  the  stone  during  its  popularity  were  the  United  States  Cus- 
tom-house and  Mint,  the  Naval  Asylum  and  Girard  College, 
while  the  seemingly  endless  rows  of  red  brick  houses  with 
white  marble  steps,  door  and  window  trimmings,  are  even  now 
as  characteristic  of  Philadelphia  as  are  the  brown-stone  fronts 
of  New  York  City.  The  sarcophagi  for  General  and  Martha 
Washington,  at  Mount  Vernon,  are  also  of  this  material. 

While  the  Montgomery  County  stone  has  shown  itself  to 
be  very  durable,  in  point  of  beauty  it  falls  far  short  of  the 
marbles  from  the  more  Eastern  States,  and  hence  its  use  for 
any  form  of  ornamental  work  has  almost  entirely  ceased. 
There  were,  however,  on  exhibition  at  the  Philadelphia  Ex- 
position of  1876  (and  since  then  transferred  to  the  National 
Museum)  samples  of  this  limestone  from  along  the  Lebanon 
Branch  of  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  Railroad,  some  of 
which  gave  promise  of  great  utility.  I  would  mention  especi- 
ally two  samples  from  Myerstown  and  Mill  Lane.  These  are 
very  fine-grained  and  compact,  of  a  drab  or  bluish  color  on 
a  polished  surface,  and  traversed  by  wavy  and  very  irregularly 
anastomosing,  nearly  black  lines.  They  seem  in  every  way 
admirably  adapted  for  decorative  work,  though  I  am  not 
aware  that  they  have  as  yet  been  at  all  used  for  this  purpose. 
Newberry  states*  that  a  fine  variety  of  black  marble  occurs  in 
or  near  Williamsport,  Lycoming  County.  I  have  never  seen 
the  stone  and  know  nothing  further  regarding  it.  A  black 
limestone  that  takes  a  fine  polish  and>  appears  well  suited  for 
interior  work  is  stated  also  to  occur  near  the  east  end  of 
Mosquito  Valley,  in  the  same  county.  For  exterior  work  it 
is  stated  to  be  unsuited,  as  it  splinters  up  badly  on  exposure. 
*  Op.  cit.  pp.  138,  139. 


IO2  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

Tennessee. — The  valley  of  East  Tennessee  is  underlaid  by 
limestone  of  Lower  Silurian  age  that  furnishes  some  of  the 
finest  and  most  beautiful  grades  of  colored  marbles  at  present 
quarried  in  the  United  States. 

At  the  present  time  the  most  extensive  quarries  are  situ- 
ated in  Knox  and  Hawkins  Counties.  The  prevailing  colors 
found  here  are  chocolate  red  and  white,  often  coarsely  varie- 
gated and  fossiliferous,  though  finely  and  evenly  crystalline 
varieties  of  a  beautiful  pink  or  strawberry  color,  with  scarce- 
ly a  trace  of  fossil  remains,  also  occur.  All  of  them  cut  to  a 
sharp  edge  and  acquire  a  beautiful  and  lasting  polish  not  ex- 
celled and  rarely  equalled  by  any  foreign  or  domestic  marbles. 
Of  foreign  marbles,  so  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  they  have  no 
exact  counterpart,  but  perhaps  resemble  the  Rosso  de  Levan- 
to  from  Spezia,  or  the  Persian  fiorto,  more  closely  than  any 
other  that  can  be  mentioned. 

Besides  the  localities  above  mentioned,  colored  marbles 
occur  in  the  following  counties  in  this  part  of  the  State  :  Han- 
cock, Grainger,  Jefferson,  Roane,  Blount,  Monroe,  McMinn, 
and  Bradley  ;  some  also  occur  in  Meigs,  Anderson,  Union, 
and  Campbell  Counties.  The  Hawkins  County  marble  is  part 
of  a  comparatively  short  belt  of  Trenton  and  Nashville  rocks 
lying  west  of  Rogersville.  It  is  some  16  or  17  miles  long,  and 
from  50  to  300  feet  in  thickness.  The  supply  is  therefore 
practically  unlimited  and  inexhaustible.  The  best  variety  of 
the  stone  is  used  only  for  ornamental  work,  owing  to  its  high 
price,  being  valued  at  from  $2  to  $3  per  cubic  foot  delivered 
at  the  nearest  railway  station. 

The  Knox  County  qyarries  are  mostly  situated  within  a  few 
miles  of  the  city  of  Knoxville.  According  to  Dr.  Safford  the 
entire  thickness  of  the  marble  bed  here  is  some  300  feet,  the 
different  layers  of  which  vary  from  chocolate  red  and  white 
variegated  varieties  through  grayish  white,  pinkish,  and  more 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND    DECORATION.  1 03 

rarely  greenish  colors.  The  most  esteemed  variety  has  when 
polished,  a  brownish  red  color,  with  white  spots  and  clouds,  due 
to  fossil  corals  and  crinoids.  The  grayish  white  variety,  which 
is  the  nearest  approach  to  a  truly  white  marble  of  any  now 
found  in  the  State,  is  greatly  esteemed  for  tombstones,  monu- 
ments, tiling,  etc.,  and  is  said  to  be  very  durable,  tombstones 
which  have  been  exposed  for  upward  of  thirty  years  showing 
no  signs  of  disintegration  or  wear.  Both  the  Hawkins  County 
and  Knox  County  stones  are  very  strong  and  heavy,  weighing 
about  1 80  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  which  is  some  14  pounds 
heavier  than  granite.  Quite  similar  variegated  marbles  are 
said  to  occur  in  many  of  the  counties  of  the  Cumberland  table- 
land, as  in  Franklin  County,  on  the  Elk  River  and  at  the  Oil 
Springs,  on  Leipor's  Creek,  in  '>ury  County.  Some  of  the 
marbles  of  this  latter  place  have  a  grayish  groundmass,  with 
fleecy  clouds  of  red  and  green.* 

A  beautiful  olive-green  fossiliferous  marble  is  also  found  in 
the  eleventh  district  of  Davidson  County,  though  the  extent  of 
the  deposit  is  not  known  by  the  writer.  Near  Calhoun,  in 
McMinn  County,  just  south  of  the  Chilhowee  Mountain,  occur 
breccia  marbles  of  exceptional  beauty,  of  pink  and  olive  green 
colors.  One  quite  unique  stone  from  this  locality  is  composed 
of  a  grayish-ground  mass,  with  large  rounded  and  angular  frag- 
ments of  a  lemon-yellow  color.  These  same  marbles  also  occur 
in  Greene,  Cocke,  Sevier,  and  all  counties  of  the  Unaka  range, 
but  they  are  not  much  worked,  on  account  of  the  hardness  of 
the  included  fragments.f 

Dove-colored  marbles  are  stated  by  the  same  authority  to 
occur  a  few  miles  south  of  Manchester,  Coffee  County,  and  in 

*  Tennessee  and  its  Agricultural  and  Mineral  Wealth,  by  J.  B.  Killebrew, 
page  149. 

f  Geology  of  Tennessee,  p.  221. 


IO4  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

Wilson  and  Davidson  Counties.  Dark  limestones,  almost  black 
when  polished,  and  often  traversed  by  veins  of  calcite,  forming 
a  good  black  marble,  are  not  uncommon.  Such  occur  in  the 
vicinity  of  Jonesborough,  Washington  County;  at  Greeneville 
and  Newport,  Cocke  County ;  on  the  Pigeons,  in  Sevier  County; 
and  also  in  McMinn  and  Polk  Counties.  They  are  at  present 
but  little  used. 

Colored  marbles  are  also  said  to  occur  in  the  Western 
Tennessee  Valley.  These,  though  somewhat  inferior  in  point  of 
beauty  to  those  of  the  East  Valley,  are  still  valuable  stones. 
Perry,  Decatur,  Wayne,  and  Hardin  Counties  are  mentioned 
as  offering  the  best  facilities.  On  Shoal  Creek,  in  Lawrence 
County,  are  said  to  be  beds  of  fawn-colored  or  brownish-red 
marbles,  some  40  feet  in  thickness  and  extending  on  both  sides 
of  the  creek  for  a  distance  of  fifteen  miles.  The  stone  is  often 
variegated  by  fleecy  clouds  of  green  or  red,  green  and  white 
colors.  Owing  to  lack  of  transportation  facilities  it  is  not  now 
in  the  market.  In  Wrilson  and  Davidson  Counties  other  beds 
of  bluish  or  dove-colored  marble  occur,  and  in  Rutherford 
County  is  a  bed  of  pale  yellow  marble  with  serpentine  veins  of 
red  and  black  dots.  The  extent  of  the  deposit  is  not  known, 
and  at  present  the  stone  is  seen  only  in  the  form  of  small  ob- 
jects for  paper-weights  and  curiosities. 

Texas. — The  resources  of  this  State  are  as  yet  but  little 
known.  There  are  on  exhibition  in  the  National  Museum  at 
Washington  several  samples  of  compact,  light-colored  Creta- 
ceous limestones,  from  the  vicinity  of  Austin,  Travis  County, 
a  few  of  which  are  of  such  quality  as  to  be  used  as  marbles. 
There  was  on  exhibition  at  the  New  Orleans  Exposition  in 
1884-85  a  marble  fire-place  and  mantel  of  Austin  marble  that 
was  worthy  of  more  than  passing  notice.  The  stone  was  com- 
pact, very  light  drab  in  color,  and  interspersed  with  large  fossil 
shells  and  transparent  calcite  crystal.  This  composition  would 


TJ1TI7BRSIT7 


PLATE  IV. 


LA 


rat 


fe 


M     MVi 


THE  MARBLE  REGION  OF  WESTERN  NEW  ENGLAND. 
[The  marble  is  indicated  as  limestone  on  the  map.] 


To  face  /xige  105. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  IO5 

render  some  care  necessary  in  cutting,  but  the  final  result 
would  seem  to  justify  the  outlay.  Other  marbles  from  Burnet 
and  vicinity  present  a  variety  of  colors,  some  of  which  are  very 
pleasing.  They  range  from  blue-gray  and  distinctly  crystalline 
to  very  fine  and  compact  forms,  designated  as  "  mahogany- 
red,"  "  red  and  white,"  "  purple  variegated,"  etc.  The  ma- 
hogany-red is  dull  in  color,  and  traversed  by  a  net-work 
of  lighter  lines.  It  is  too  hard  and  brittle  to  work  economic- 
ally. The  most  promising  variety  is  the  purple  variegated. 
This  presents  an  extremely  compact  base  of  a  grayish,  or 
light  lavender-tint,  which  is  traversed  by  fine,  irregular  lines 
of  a  red  and  purple  color.  The  stone  acquires  an  excellent 
surface  and  polish,  but  is  so  hard  as  to  work  with  great 
difficulty. 

Utah. — A  yellowish  white  crystalline  limestone,  that  can 
scarcely  be  called  a  marble,  occurs  near  Payson,  in  this  Terri- 
tory, and  a  compact  nearly  black  stone,  interspersed  with  nu- 
merous white  fossil  shells,  in  the  San  Pete  Valley.  Neither 
stone  can  lay  any  claim  to  beauty,  though  possibly  the  last 
mentioned  might  be  made  to  do  as  marble  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances. 

Vermont. — Since  this  is  the  leading  marble-producing  State 
of  the  Union  a  brief  description  of  the  chief  geological  features 
of  the  marble  formations  may  not  be  out  of  place  here.  Ac- 
cording to  Professor  Brainard*  this  formation  extends  along 
the  western  borders  of  the  States  of  Connecticut,  Massachu- 
setts, and  Vermont,  between  the  Green  Mountain  elevation, 
which  extends  from  the  Canada  line  nearly  to  Long  Island 
Sound,  and  the  intermittent  Taconic  Mountains,  which  extend 
south  of  Lake  Champlain,  and  in  places  admit  the  marble 
veins  within  the  border  of  New  York.  Of  these  immense  for- 

*  The  Marble  Border  of  Western  New  England,  p.  9. 


IO6  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

mations,  which  are  from  1,000  to  2,000  feet  in  thickness,  the 
lower  portion,  known  to  geologists  as  the  Calciferous  (300  to 
400  feet  in  thickness),  is  for  the  most  part  siliceous,  partaking 
of  the  nature  of  the  sandrock  that  underlies  it.  The  upper 
portion,  known  as  the  Trenton  (500  to  600  feet  in  thickness), 
is  impure  from  the  presence  of  clayey  matter,  partaking  of  the 
nature  of  the  slate  formation  that  overlies  it.  Only  certain 
layers  of  the  middle  portions  seem  to  have  been  fitted  by  their 
original  constitution  for  the  production  of  marble. 

The  limits  of  the  formation  may  be  best  understood  by 
reference  to  the  accompanying  map  (Plate  iv),  redrawn  from 
Professor  Brainard's  report.* 

Professor  Hitchcockf  conveniently  divides  the  marbles  of 
this  Sate  into  four  groups  or  classes:  (i)  the  common  white 
and  bluish  or  Eolian  marble,  so  called  from  its  occurring 
extensively  on  Mount  Eolus ;  (2)  the  Winooski ;  (3)  the  varie- 
gated of  Plymouth,  and  (4)  the  dark,  almost  black,  of  Isle  La 
Motte.  We  will  consider  these  in  the  order  here  given. 

The  beds  of  the  Eolian  variety  as  described  by  Prof.  Hitch- 
cock are  not  restricted  to  one  locality,  but  are  distributed  over 
a  large  portion  of  western  Vermont,  the  formation  in  which  it 
occurs  extending  the  entire  length  of  the  State,  and  usually 
interstratified  with  siliceous  and  magnesian  limestones.  The 
strata  vary  in  thickness  from  a  few  inches  to  6  or  8  feet,  the 
thickest  beds  being  usually  found  where  the  marble  is  coarse- 
grained and  friable. 

In  texture  this  variety  of  the  stone  is  as  a  rule  fine-grained, 
and  often  saccharoidal,  though  less  so  than  the  Italian  marbles. 
In  color  it  varies  from  pure  snowy  white  through  all  shades  of 
bluish,  and  sometimes  greenish,  often  beautifully  mottled  and 


*  By  permission  of  the  Middlebury  Historical  Society, 
f  Geology  of  Vermont,  vol.  u.  p.  752. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  1 07 

veined,  to  deep  blue  black,  the  bluish  and  dark  varieties  being 
as  a  rule  the  finest  and  most  durable.  Many  quarries  have 
first  and  last  been  opened  along  this  belt,  and  the  industry  has 
added  materially  to  the  prosperity  of  the  towns  here  situated. 
Among  those  towns  in  which  the  quarry  industry  has  been  par- 
ticularly active  maybe  mentioned  (beginning  with  the  southern- 
most), Dorset,  and  East  Dorset,  Wallingford,  West  Rutland, 
Sutherland  Falls  (Proctor),  Pittsford,  Brandon,  and  Middlebury. 
As  a  rule  the  best  marbles  are  said  to  occur  where  the  beds  or 
strata  stand  at  a  high  angle,  as  at  West  Rutland. 

The  quarries  in  Dorset  are  mostly  situated  upon  the  sides 
of  Mount  Eolus,  or  Dorset  Mountain,  as  it  is  also  called,  a  sec- 
tion of  which,  after  Hitchcock,  is  here  given. 

The  thickness  of  the  slaty  cap 
rock  is  estimated  at  498  feet,  and  the 
various  beds  of  limestone  below  at 
1,970  feet.  Although  but  a  small 
portion  of  this  is  suitable  for  quarry- 
ing, still  the  supply  is  readily  seen  to 
be  inexhaustible.  The  prevailing 
colors  of  the  stone,  as  at  Rutland,  are  white  and  bluish,  vari- 
ously mottled  and  veined.  According  to  Professor  Seely,  the 
first  quarry  opened  in  Dorset  was  by  Isaac  Underbill,  in  1785, 
the  stone  being  used  chiefly  for  fire-jambs,  chimney-backs,  etc. 
The  first  marble  grave-stones  ever  furnished  here  were  the  work 
of  Jonas  Stewart,  in  1790. 

From  Dorset  the  beds  thin  out  toward  the  north,  the  more 
northerly  beds,  though  thinner,  usually  furnishing  the  finer 
grained  and  more  compact  stone. 

The  marble  strata  in  Rutland  and  Addison  Counties  appear 
in  two  parallel  lines  about  2  miles  apart,  stretching  from  the 
north  line  of  Middlebury  to  the  south  line  of  Rutland,  and  are 
from  100  to  200  feet  in  thickness.  These  strata  are  not  how- 


IO8  S7VNES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

ever  homogeneous  throughout,  but  as  seen  in  the  quarry  open- 
ings the  stone  occurs  in  beds  usually  but  a  few  feet  in  thickness 
which  vary  considerably  in  color,  so  that  several  grades,  from 
pure  white  through  greenish,  bluish,  and  almost  black,  may  be 
taken  from  the  same  quarry. 

Professor  Hitchcock  gives  the  following  figures  relative  to 
the  marble-beds  at  one  of  the  West  Rutland  quarries,  begin- 
ning at  the  eastern  side  or  top  layer : 


1.  Upper  blue  layer,  4  feet  thick. 

2.  Upper   white     layer,    3    feet    6    inches 

thick. 

3.  Gray  limestone  layer,  5  feet  thick. 

4.  White  statuary  layer,  3  feet   thick. 

5.  Striped  layer,  I  foot  8  inches  thick. 

6.  New  white  layer,  4  feet  thick. 


7.  Wedged    white    layer,     from    8 

inches  2  feet  6  inches  thick. 

8.  Muddy  layer,  4  feet  thick. 

9.  Striped  green  layer,  4  feet  thick. 
10.  Camphor-gum  layer,  3  feet  thick, 
n.  White  layer,  9  feet  thick. 

12.  Blue  layer,  3  feet  6  inches. 


The  quarries  themselves  at  this  village  lie  along  the  western 
base  of  a  low  range  of  hills,  which,  to  the  ordinary  observer, 
give  no  sign  of  the  vast  wealth  of  material  concealed  beneath 
their  gray  and  uninteresting  exteriors.  In  quarrying,  the  best 
beds  are  selected,  and  upon  their  upturned  edges  excavation  is 
commenced,  first  by  blasting,  to  remove  the  weathered  and 
worthless  material,  and  afterward  by  channeling,  drilling,  and 
wedging  ;  no  powder  being  used  lest  the  fine  massive  blocks 
become  shattered  and  unfit  for  use.  The  quarry  thus  descends 
in  the  form  of  a  rectangular  pit,  with  almost  perpendicular, 
often  overhanging,  walls,  to  a  depth  of  sometimes  more  than 
200  feet,  when  the  beds  are  found  to  curve  to  the  eastward  and 
pass  under  the  hill,  becoming  thus  more  nearly  horizontal  ;  in 
following  these  the  quarry  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  vast 
cavern  from  whose  smoke-blackened,  gaping  mouths  one  would 
little  suppose  could  be  drawn  the  huge  blocks  of  snow-white 
material  lying  in  gigantic  piles  in  the  near  vicinity  (see  Plates 
I  and  v).  Some  of  the  quarries  have  been  partially  roofed 
over  to  protect  them  from  snow  and  rain,  and  seem  like  mines 


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STONES  FOX  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  IOQ 


rather  than  quarries.  The  scant  daylight  at  the  bottom  is 
scarce  sufficient  to  guide  the  quarryman  in  his  work.  As  one 
peers  cautiously  over  the  edge  into  the  black  and  seemingly 
bottomless  abyss,  naught  but  darkness  and  ascending  smoke 
and  steam  are  visible,  while  his  astonished  ears  are  filled  with 
such  an  unearthly  clamor  of  quarrying  machines,  the  puffing  of 
engines,  and  the  shouts  of  laborers,  as  is  comparable  with 
nothing  within  the  range  of  our  limited  experience,  and  the 
reader  is  at  liberty  to  make  his  own  comparisons. 

The  stone  taken  from  the  quarries  is  worked  up  in  the 
companies'  shops  in  the  immediate  vicinity  or  shipped  in  the 
rough  as  occasion  demands.  The  supply  is  used  for  monu- 
mental, decorative,  or  statuary  work  and  general  building. 

At  Sutherland  Falls  the  stone  is  very  massive,  and  large 
blocks  are  taken  out  for  building  purposes.  Some  of  the  most 
valuable  marbles,  according  to  Professor  Seely,  are  here  known 
as  the  dark  and  light  mourning  vein  varieties.  The  dark  mourn- 
ing vein  has  a  ground  of  deep  blue,  while  lines,  nearly  black, 
run  through  it  in  a  zigzag  course,  presenting  a  beautiful  ap- 
pearance. The  light  mourning  vein  has  similar  veins,  but  the 
ground  is  lighter.  T!  e  quarries  at  this  place  are  described  by 
Professor  Seely  as  being  in  the  form  of  a  hollow  cube  cut  into 
a  hill,  with  perpendicular  walls  on  the  north  and  west  rising  to 
a  height  of  nearly  100  feet,  open  to  the  sky,  and  with  an  acre 
of  rock  forming  its  horizontal  marble  floor.  Over  this  floor 
are  run  channeling  machines,  cutting  out  long  parallel  blocks 
which  are  afterwards  cut  up  into  convenient  size,  lifted  from 
their  beds,  and  taken  to  the  mills  to  be  sawn. 

It  is  stated  *  that  Pittsford  has  the  honor  of  having  one  of 
the  earliest  quarries  in  the  State,  if  not  the  earliest,  Jeremiah 
Sheldon  having  worked  marble  here  as  early  as  1795.  There 

*  The  Marble  Border  of  Western  New  England,  p.  46. 


IIO  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


are  three  beds  of  marble  running  through  the  town,  north  and 
south.  The  most  easterly  has  a  breadth  of  some  200  feet,  and 
the  stone  is  of  the  same  character  as  that  at  Sutherland  Falls 
or  Proctor,  as  the  town  is  now  called.  The  middle  bed  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  first  by  about  200  feet  of  lime  rock.  The  bed 
itself  is  some  400  feet  wide,  and  the  stone  varies  in  color  from 
pure  white  to  dark  blue.  The  third  or  west  bed  which  is 
thought  to  correspond  to  that  of  West  Rutland  is  about  half 
a  mile  west  of  the  central  and  is  about  400  feet  wide.  The 
stone  is  dark-blue  and  often  beautifully  mottled.  Some  of  the 
beds  here,  as  at  West  Rutland,  furnish  a  beautiful  snow-white 
saccharoidal  stone  suitable  for  statuary  purposes,  for  which  it 
has  been  used  to  a  slight  extent.  The  Vermont  statuary  mar- 
ble, however,  differs  from  its  Italian  prototype,  in  being  of  a 
dead  white  color  and  lacking  the  mellow,  waxy  lustre  so  char- 
acteristic of  the  Italian  stone. 

Several  outcrops  of  marble  occur  in  Middlebury,  and  which 
have  been  worked  for  many  years  past ;  but  in  consequence  of 
the  thinness  of  the  beds,  their  badly  jointed  structure,  and  the 
interstratification  of  a  magnesian  slate  that  produces  numerous 
"  rising  seams/'  it  is  said  to  be  quite  difficult  to  obtain  per- 
fectly sound  blocks  of  large  size.  Nevertheless  much  valuable 
material  has  been  taken  out  here,  both  for  architectural  and 
monumental  work. 

The  bed  of  primordial  rock  known  to  geologists  as  the 
"  red  sand-rock,"  which  occurs  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the 
State,  bordering  on  Lake  Champlain,  is,  as  a  rule,  a  hard,  dark- 
red  sandstone,  containing  some  8  or  9  per  cent  of  potash,  with 
about  the  same  amounts  of  iron  and  lime.  The  entire  forma- 
tion, which  is  some  2,000  feet  in  thickness,  is,  however,  by  no 
means  uniform  in  composition,  but  includes  considerable  beds 
of  limestone,  dolomite,  slate,  and  shale.  It  is  the  dolomitic 
layer  which  furnishes  the  peculiar  red-and-white  mottled  stone 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  Ill 

popularly  known  as  Winooski  marble.  According  to  a  writer 
in  the  American  Naturalist,*  the  beds  of  this  marble  appear 
first  one  or  two  miles  north  of  Burlington,  and  extend  in  a 
somewhat  interrupted  series  north  through  St.  Albans,  and 
end  between  that  place  and  Swanton.  More  than  thirty  years 
ago  a  quarry  was  opened  in  this  rock  about  6  miles  from  Bur- 
lington, but  owing  to  the  hardness  of  the  stone  the  enterprise 
proved  a  failure  and  the  quarries  were  abandoned.  Later, 
quarries  were  opened  at  St.  Albans,  and  still  more  recently 
were  re-opened  at  Burlington,  the  stone  being  used  largely  for 
flooring-tiles,  wainscotings,  and  general  interior  decorative  work. 
Asa  rule  the  stone  is  crystalline  and  very  hard,  much  harder 
than  ordinary  marble.  Its  color  is  quite  variable,  though  some 
shade  of  red  mottled  with  white  usually  predominates.  Some 
varieties  are  beautifully  light  pink  and  white,  or  pink  and  deep 
blue-gray  or  greenish.  The  very  common  chocolate-red  and 
white  variety  is  put  upon  the  market  as  Lyonaise  marble,  and 
is  used  largely  for  tiling,  its  natural  color  being  often  rendered 
darker  by  oiling. 

Chemically  the  ^tone  is  a  dolomite,  though  varying  widely 
in  composition  in  samples  from  different  localities.  Some 
samples  show  a  very  decided  brecciated  structure,  while  in 
others  this  entirely  disappears.  It  is,  as  a  rule,  very  hard  to 
work,  and,  as  exhibited  in  the  capitol  building  at  Albany, 
New  York,  the  surface  is  often  disfigured  by  irregular  cavities 
and  flaws  which  are  rather  unsightly.  The  color  is  said  to  fade 
on  exposure  to  the  weather,  and  hence  the  stone  is  used 
mostly  for  interior  work. 

An  excellent  outcrop  of  this  marble  occurs  on  the  shore  of 
Mallet's  Bay,  in  the  town  of  Colchester.  The  strata  at  this 
point  are  nearly  horizontal,  and  in  many  places  form  the  banks 

*  George  H.  Perkins,  American  Naturalist,  Feb.  1881. 


112  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

of  the  lake.  One  of  the  quarries  is  so  situated  that  a  vessel 
can  be  brought  up  alongside  and  loaded  with  blocks  with  as 
much  ease  as  they  are  usually  loaded  upon  carts  or  cars  at  in- 
land quarries.  The  stone  occurs  in  beds  varying  in  thickness 
from  i  to  6  feet,  and  blocks  of  almost  any  size  can  be  obtained. 
It  is  hard  to  work,  but  as  a  consequence  is  very  durable  when 
once  finished,  being  not  easily  scratched  or  scarred. 

The  best  developments  of  the  rock  for  marble  quarrying 
are  at  Colchester,  as  already  mentioned,  Milton,  Georgia,  Saint 
Albans,  and  Swanton.  At  the  last-named  place  there  also 
occurs  a  beautiful  gray  marble,  with  angular  fossil  fragments 
of  a  white  and  pink  color,  identical  with  the  "  Lepanto  "  mar- 
ble of  New  York.  There  is  also  a  fine  and  compact  dove-col- 
ored marble  here,  admirably  adapted  for  decorative  work,  but 
the  quarries  are  now  abandoned. 

The  Plymouth  marble,  so  called,  is  a  quite  pure  dolomite, 
an  analysis  by  Dr.  Hunt  resulting  as  follows : 

Per  cent. 

Carbonate  of  lime , 53.9 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 44. 7 

Oxides  of  iron  and  alumina. 1.3 

99-9 

The  stone  occurs  in  the  talcose  schist  formation  near  the 
centre  of  the  town  of  Plymouth,  at  an  elevation  of  250  feet 
above  the  Plymouth  pond.  Quarries  were  opened  here  about 
1835,  but  were  soon  abandoned,  as  the  demand  at  that  time 
was  almost  altogether  for  white  marble.  The  beds  dip  60°  to 
the  east,  and  the  quarry  walls,  which  have  been  exposed  to  the 
weather  for  twenty  years,  seem  unaffected.  In  color  the  stone 
is  blue  or  bluish-brown,  diversified  with  long  stripes  and  figures 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  113 

of  various  shapes  in  white.  It  is  fine  grained  and  compact, 
splitting  with  equal  facility  in  every  direction.* 

The  Isle  La  Motte  marble  derives  its  name  from  Isle  La 
Motte,  in  Lake  Champlain,  where  it  occurs  in  considerable 
abundance.  It  also  occurs  on  several  other  islands  in  this  lake 
and  upon  its  banks  in  many  places.  According  to  Professor 
Hitchcock  this  was  the  first  marble  worked  in  the  State,  quar- 
ries having  been  opened  prior  to  the  Revolutionary  war.  The 
stone,  which  is  largely  used  for  flooring-tiles,  is  very  dark, 
almost  black  in  color,  and  highly  fossiliferous,  having  under- 
gone less  metamorphism  than  the  marble  in  the  interior  of  the 
State.  So  far  as  the  author  has  observed,  its  color  and  texture 
are  such  as  to  preclude  its  obtaining  a  high  rank  for  purely 
decorative  purposes,  but  for  floor-tiling  is  much  esteemed  and 
very  durable.  Fossil  shells  of  great  beauty  are  not  uncom- 
mon, and,  being  snowy  white  in  color,  show  up  in  strong  con- 
trast to  the  dark  paste  in  which  they  are  embedded. 

Virginia. — The  extensive  area  comprehended  under  the 
title  of  the  Valley  of  Virginia  embraces  "  all  the  portion  of  the 
State  having  for  its  eastern  boundary  the  western  slope  of  the 
Blue  Ridge  and  its  inflected  continuation  the  Poplar  Camp 
and  Iron  Mountains,  and  for  its  western  the  Little  North  and 
a  portion  of  the  Big  North  Mountain,  with  the  southern  pro- 
longation of  the  former,  Caldwell  and  Brushy  Mountains;  and 
near  its  southwestern  termination  the  line  of  knobs  forming 
the  extension  of  Walker's  Mountain."f 

The  central  portion  of  the  valley  as  thus  outlined  is  under- 
laid largely  by  limestones  of  Silurio-Cambrian  age,  which  are 
in  several  places,  according  to  the  authority  above  quoted, 
capable  of  yielding  good  marbles.  The  special  varieties  men- 

*  Geology  of  Vermont,  vol.  n.  p.  776. 

f  Rogers,  Geology  of  the  Virginias,    pp.  203,204. 


114  SJ^ONES  FOR    BUILDING   AND  DECORATION. 

tioned  are:  (i)  a  dun-colored  marble  met  with  near  New  Mar- 
ket and  Woodstock,  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Massan- 
utten  Mountain  in  Page  County;  (2)  a  mottled  bluish  marble 
to  the  west  of  New  Market  ;  (3)  a  gray  marble  occurring  some 
three-fourths  of  a  mile  in  a  southeasterly  direction  from  Bu- 
chanan, in  Botetourt  County ;  (4)  a  white  marble  of  exquisite 
color  and  fine  grain  about  5  miles  from  Lexington,  in  Rock- 
bridge  County ;  (5)  a  red  marble  occurring  only  in  the  Cam- 
brian formations  lying  among  the  mountains  in  the  more 
southwestern  counties ;  and  (6)  a  shaded  marble  found  in 
Rockingham  County.  This  last  is  said  to  be  compact,  suscept- 
ible of  a  beautiful  polish,  and  of  a  yellowish  gray  and  slate 
color.  None  of  the  above  have  as  yet  received  more  than  a 
local  application. 

At  Craigsville,  in  Augusta  County,  there  occurs  a  gray, 
sometimes  pink-spotted  encrinal  limestone  which  acquires  a 
good  polish,  and  though  in  no  way  remarkable  for  its  beauty  is 
capable  of  extensive  application  for  furniture  and  interior  de- 
coration. The  Archaean  area  to  the  eastward  of  the  Valley  of 
Virginia  also  includes  sundry  areas  of  workable  marble.  It  is 
stated  by  Rogers  that  "  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tye  River  (in 
Nelson  County)  and  the  Rockfish,  a  true  marble  is  found,  of  a 
beautiful  whiteness  and  of  a  texture  which  renders  it  suscept- 
ible of  a  fine  polish  as  well  as  being  readily  wrought  with  the 
chisel.  A  few  miles  from  Lynchburg,  in  Campbell  County,  a 
good  marble  is  likewise  found."  "  The  Tye  River  marble  and 
one  or  more  analogous  veins  "  are  further  stated  to  "  have  all 
the  characters  of  a  statuary  marble  of  fine  quality,  and  should 
not  some  peculiarity,  as  yet  unperceived,  prevent  their  appli- 
cation for  the  purposes  of  the  sculptor,  they  will  no  doubt  be 
looked  upon  as  very  valuable  possessions."  The  writer  has 
seen  none  of  the  material  from  this  locality.  White  and  pink 
marbles  of  excellent  quality  also  occur  in  the  vicinity  of  Goose 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  115 

Creek,  in  Loudoun  County.  I  have  seen  samples  of  the  white, 
which  for  purity  of  color,  fineness  of  grain,  and  general  excel- 
lence, are  not  excelled  by  any  marble  now  quarried  in  the 
United  States,  but  the  extent  of  the  deposit  is  as  yet  unknown. 

These  same  beds  also  produce  a  green  or  verdantique 
marble  of  great  beauty.  The  stone  is  an  impure  magnesian 
limestone  admixed  with  a  large  amount  of  serpentinous  mat- 
ter. The  prevailing  hue  is  green,  but  the  stone  is  streaked  and 
blotched  in  various  shades  and  often  brecciated.  It  is  well 
adapted  for  interior  work,  but  the  presence  of  abundant  pyrite 
renders  it  unfit  for  exterior  application. 

The  stalagmitic  deposits  upon  the  floors  of  the  caverns  at 
Luray,  in  Page  County,  furnish,  when  cut,  occasional  fine 
pieces  of  the  so-called  onyx  marble,  but  the  stone  is  too  easily 
fractured  and  too  uneven  in  texture  to  be  worked  economically 
as  is  noted  elsewhere,  even  were  the  deposits  of  sufficient  extent 
to  warrant  the  opening  of  quarries. 

Wyoming. — The  resources  of  this  State  are  not  as  yet  fully 
known.  White  and  greenish  marbles  of  good  quality  have 
been  stated  *  to  occur  on  Cedar  Creek  in  the  extreme  eastern 
part  of  the  Platte  River  valley  and  the  Savary  section  in  Jthe 
extreme  west.  In  the  collections  of  the  National  Museum 
are  to  be  seen  samples  of  a  fine-grained  and  compact  reddish 
marble  variegated  with  white  and  drab,  from  quarries  in  Musk- 
rat  Cafton  in  township  30  west,  range  65  west.  The  stone 
acquires  a  good  polish  and  is  somewhat  harder  than  a  major- 
ity of  the  marbles  now  worked. 

The  published  returns  of  the  eleventh  census  give  the  fol- 
lowing figures  relative  to  the  marble  industry  of  the  United 
States  for  the  year  1889  :— 

*  Stone,  April  1889. 


n6 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


States. 

Product. 

Cubic  feet. 

Value. 

33,792 
250,000 
333,305 
1,171,550 
309,709 
1,068,305 
150,552 

$87,030 
196,250 
139,816 

354,197 
419,467 
2,169,560 
121,850 

Georgia 

Maryland  

New  York  

Tennessee        •         •  •  •  • 

Vermont                    . 

All  other  states'  

Total     

3,320,213 

$3,488,170 

(4)  THE   ONYX    MARBLES,    OR   TRAVERTINES. 

The  so-called  onyx  marbles,  although  of  the  same  compo- 
sition, differ  from  those  of  the  common  type  in  being  chemical 
deposits  rather  than  altered  sedimentary  beds.  Like  the 
stalagmitic  deposits  in  caves,  they  are  formed  by  the  evapor- 
ation of  water  holding  carbonate  of  lime  in  solution,  and  owe 
their  banded  structure  and  variegated  colors  to  the  intermittent 
character  of  the  deposition,  and  the  presence  or  absence  of 
various  impurities,  mainly  metallic  oxides.  The  term  onyx, 
as  commonly  applied  is  a  misnomer,  and  has  been  given  merely 
because  in  their  banded  appearance  they  somewhat  resemble 
the  true  onyx,  which  is  a  variety  of  agate.  The  stone  is  prop- 
erly a  travertine.  It  is  an  interesting  illustration  of  the  mis- 
leading character  of  popular  names  that  the  onyx  marbles,  and 
particularly  those  from  Algeria  and  Egypt,  are  so  universally 
known  as  alabaster,  while  true  alabaster  is  a  pure  white  and 
compact  variety  of  gypsum;  in  fact  the  alabaster  boxes  men- 
tioned in  the  scriptures,  as  used  for  holding  precious  ointments, 
are  said  to  have  been  in  reality  constructed  of  travertine. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

Owing  to  their  translucency,  delicacy  and  variety  of  colors, 
the  readiness  with  which  they  can  be  worked  and  the  high 
polish  which  they  admit  of,  these  marbles  have  long  been 
favorites  for  smaller  ornamentation  and  highly  decorative 
work,  and  will  doubtless  long  so  continue.  As  with  the  red 
granites  of  Syene,  and  the  green  and  red  porphyries,  the 
ancient  Egyptians  knew  their  value,  and  utilized  them  as  long 
ago  as  the  time  of  the  Rameses  ;  the  ancient  Romans,  too, 
appreciated  their  beauty  and  utilized  them  in  the  construction 
of  their  monuments  and  the  interior  decorations  of  their 
houses. 

The  only  onyx  marble  until  recently  of  any  commercial  im- 
portance within  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  is  found  at  San 
Luis  Obispo,  California.  The  stone  as  I  have  seen  it  in  the 
dealers'  shops  in  San  Francisco,  and  as  shown  in  the  National 
collection,  is  nearly  white,  finely  banded,  translucent,  and 
takes  a  beautiful  surface  and  polish.  It  lacks  the  variety  of 
colors  of  the  Mexican  onyx,  but  is  nevertheless  a  beautiful 
stone  and  if  it  can  be  obtained  in  any  abundance  will  find  a 
ready  market. 

According  to  Mr.  Angell,*  the  San  Luis  Obispo  onyx  quar- 
ries are  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  Santa  Lucia  Mountains. 
There  are  two  openings  on  sections  9  and  16,  township  31  south, 
range  15  east,  Mount  Diablo  meridian. 

The  two  out-croppings  so  far  discovered  are  about  half  a 
mile  apart,  one  on  the  northern  and  one  on  the  southern  slope 
of  a  hill  which  rises  about  So  feet  between  them.  Whether  or 
no  they  are  portions  of  the  same  bed  is  yet  to  be  determined. 
The  strike  of  the  two  is  not  the  same.  The  rock  of  the  north- 
ern outcrop  is  milky  white.  That  of  the  southern  variegated 
in  yellow,  green,  pink,  blue,  golden  and  red  colors  beautifully 

*  Tenth  Annual  Report  State  Mineralogist  of  California,  1890,  p.  584. 


Il8  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

blended.  The  enclosing  rock  is  sandy  slate,  the  ledges  of  the 
onyx  standing  nearly  perpendicular  and  having  a  thickness  of 
about  1 6  feet. 

The  stone  is  stated  to  be  worth  about  $100.00  a  ton  in  San 
Francisco,  and  when  polished  about  $10.00  a  square  foot. 

A  dull  red  resinous,  or  yellow  travertine,  but  which  occurs 
only  in  small  masses,  has  been  quarried  in  times  past  at  Suisin 
in  the  same  State,  and  a  beautiful  light  emerald  green  variety 
in  Siskiyou  county,  but  neither  deposit,  so  far  as  can  be  learn- 
ed, is  sufficiently  extensive  to  have  any  great  commercial  value. 
Other  onyx  marbles  are  mentioned  in  the  various  reports  of  the 
the  State  mineralogist  as  occuring  in  the  State,  but  not  having 
seen  samples,  the  writer  is  obliged  to  quote  wholly  from  other 
authorities.  An  orange  and  blue  variety  is  stated  to  occur  in 
the  southeast  quarter  of  section  9,  township  32  south,  range  15 
east,  Mt.  Diablo  meridian. 

An  onyx  marble  is  also  stated  to  occur  in  the  form  of  veins 
and  bunches  in  the  limestone  of  Slover  Mountain  near  the  town 
of  Colton  in  San  Bernardino  County.  The  stone  is  described 
as  beautifully  striped  and  banded  with  various  shades  of  yellow 
and  brown.  It  is  regarded  as  a  promising  stone.* 

The  serpentines  and  other  marbles  occuring  here  are  noted 
elsewhere. 

A  recent  find  of  high  grade  onyx  is  reported  from  near 
Prescott,  in  Yavapai  County,  Arizona.  The  colors  are  given  as 
green,  white,  black  and  white,  milky,  red,  old  gold  and  brown. 
At  the  time  this  work  goes  to  press  the  writer  has  had  no 
opportunity  of  personally  inspecting  the  stone,  and  hence  at- 
tempts to  give  no  detailed  description  of  its  qualities. 

Quarries  of  the  oynx  marbles  have  on  sundry  occasions  been 
opened  in  the  stalagmitic  deposits  of  caves  in  Missouri,  but  the 


*  Annual  Report  of  State  Mineralogist.  1888,  p.  509. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  1 19 

stone  is  stated  by  dealers  to  be  soft  and  of  too  dull  a  color  to 
be  greatly  desirable.  The  similar  deposits  in  the  Luray  caves 
of  Virginia  have  furnished  occasional  blocks  of  considerable 
beauty,  but  the  rock  is,  as  a  rule,  too  coarsely  crystalline  and 
too  friable,  to  be  of  value,  even  when  the  colors  are  good.  At 
least  this  is  the  case  with  a  majority  of  the  blocks  in  the 
National  collections  at  Washington.  I  am  told  by  Dr.  G. 
Brown  Goode,  however,  that  it  is  a  common  thing  to  find  in 
the  country  mansions  of  Virginia,  very  handsome  mantels  of 
this  stone,  but  which  have  as  a  rule  been  cut  from  stray  blocks 
found  loose  in  the  fields.  As  above  noted,  the  San  Luis 
Obispo  stone  is  the  one  of  chief  commercial  importance  at 
present.  The  Mexican  onyx  differs  from  that  of  California,  in 
presenting  a  greater  variety  of  colors.  Creamy-white,  amber 
yellow,  streaked  or  blotched  with  green  or  red,  to  uniformly 
light  green  or  green  with  red  blotches  are  common.  Cut 
across  the  grain  the  stone  often  presents  a  beautifully  banded 
structure  like  the  grain  of  wood.  Cut  in  this  way,  however, 
it  is  very  weak,  and  needs  always  to  be  backed  by  slabs 
of  stronger  and  cheaper  material.  The  stone  occurs  in  such 
abundance  at  Tecali,  State  of  Puebla,  Mexico,  that  it  has  been 
used  in  rough  blocks  for  building  the  native  houses,  and  I  am 
informed  by  M.  Ferrari,  of  the  Mexican  Geological  Commis- 
sion, that  the  name  Tecalli  was  given  the  locality  on  this 
account,  the  word  being  derived  from  two  Aztec  words  tetl, 
stone,  and  calli,  house.  When  cut  into  thin  slabs  the  stone  is 
quite  translucent,  and  I  am  informed  by  this  same  authority 
that  it  has  been  used  in  this  form  for  window  panes  in  some  of 
the  public  buildings  of  the  City  of  Mexico.  M.  Mariano  Bar- 
cena,  who  read  a  paper  describing  the  stone  and  its  mode  of 
occurrence  before  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Science,  at  the 
time  of  the  Exposition  in  1876,  reported  on  it  as  having  a 
specific  gravity  otf  2.90  (equal  to  a  weight  of  181  pounds  to  the 


I2O  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

cubic  foot),  and  consisting  of  96.36  per  cent  carbonate  of  lime 
and  magnesia,  some  3.54  per  cent  sulphate  of  lime  and  o.io 
per  cent  water,  oxides  of  iron  and  manganese,  the  higher 
colored  varieties  showing  larger  percentages  of  the  metallic 
oxides. 

This  stone  is  by  far  the  most  beautiful  and  variegated  of 
the  onyx  marbles,  and  is  now  imported  into  the  United  States 
at  the  rate  of  many  tons  annually.  It  is  used  wholly  for 
interior  decorations,  and  is  to  be  seen  in  the  form  of  turned 
columns,  and  tops  for  small  tables  and  stands,  in  any  of  the 
leading  house-furnishing  shops.  Slabs  of  I  inch  in  thickness  are 
valued  according  to  color  at  the  rate  of  from  $2. 50  to  $6.00  per 
square  foot  in  the  New  York  market. 

The  only  other  onyx  m:;rbles  of  any  great  commercial  im- 
portance now  quarried  are  from  Algeria  and  Egypt  in  northern 
Africa.  Some  slight  confusion  among  authorities  seems  to 
exist  regarding  these  localities.  Hull,  in  his  work  on  Building 
and  Ornamental  Stones  published  in  1872,  speaks  of  the  Egyp- 
tian onyx  as  found  at  Blad  Recam  near  the  Ravine  of  Oned 
Abdallah.  Delesse,*  however,  puts  down  Oned  (or  Oued) 
Abdallah  as  in  Algeria,  and  states  that  the  Egyptian  onyx  is 
from  quarries  situated  at  Benisouef,  about  twenty-five  leagues 
south  of  Cairo,  on  the  Nile,  and  at  Syout  (or  Sivat)  still 
farther  south.  The  Syout  stone  is  said  to  be  distinguishable 
from  that  of  Benisouef  by  its  paler,  slightly  grayish  color.  As 
the  African  onyx  now  imported  is  almost  universally  known  as 
Egyptian  onyx,  it  seems  probable  that  it  is  from  either  the  Beni- 
souef or  Syout  quarries,  possibly  both.  The  Egyptian  stone 
lacks  the  variety  of  colors  displayed  by  that  of  Mexico,  vary- 
ing only  from  whitish  to  amber  yellow.  It  is  nevertheless  a 
beautiful  stone,  and  is  utilized  for  furniture  tops,  clocks,  and  a 

*Materiauxde  Construction  de  L'Exposition  1855,  P-  158. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  121 

variety  of  smaller  ornamentations.  The  quarries  were  first 
worked  by  the  Egyptians  and  later  by  the  Romans. 

The  Algerian  stone  is  stated  by  Delesse*  to  occur  at  Ain- 
Tembaleck,  near  the  river  Isser,  and  to  lie  in  irregular  beds 
varying  from  a  few  inches  to  nearly  ten  feet  in  thickness.  The 
stone  is  translucent,  and  of  faintly  white  color,  with  a  compact 
at  times  somewhat  fibrous  structure,  and  is  stated  to  weigh 
about  170  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.  The  Algerian,  like  the 
Egyptian  quarries,  are  said  to  have  furnished  material  for  the 
embellishment  of  ancient  Rome  and  Carthage,  but  for  over  a 
thousand  years  the  quarries  were  completely  lost  sight  of — to 
be  rediscovered  by  M.  Delmont,  about  1849.  Samples  of  the 
Algerian  stone,  received  at  Washington  from  the  Musee  Na- 
tionale  de  France,  are  nearly  white  or  of  a  faint  yellowish  color, 
and  in  no  way  remarkable  for  their  beauty. 

Travertines  or  stalagmitic  marbles  (Lalbatre  Calcaire]  are 
stated  by  Delesse  f  to  be  abundant  in  many  parts  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Tuscany,  Italy,  notably  at  Serravezza,  Vignone,  San- 
Filippo,  Grosseto,  and  Castel-Nuovo.  None  of  these,  so  far  as 
I  can  learn,  are  regularly  imported  into  the  United  States. 
Small  samples  in  the  National  collections,  and  marked  as  from 
Civita  Vecchia  and  Montalto,  are  of  a  yellowish  or  dull  white 
color,  and  not  remarkably  beautiful.  Other  stalagmitic  mar- 
bles in  this  same  collection,  but  not  of  sufficient  beauty  to  be 
of  great  value,  are  from  Jura  in  France,  and  Stuttgardt, 
Germany.  The  various  cavities  and  caves  in  the  limestone 
forming  the  rock  of  Gibraltar  often  furnish  small  masses  of 
a  handsomely  banded  brownish  stalagmite  which  is  cut  into 
small  ornaments  and  widely  circulated.  The  National  collec- 
tions show  a  small  mounted  canon  and  several  irregular  blocks 

*  Materiaux  de  Construction  de  L'Exposition  Universelle,  1855,  p.  155. 
f  Op.  sit.,  176. 


122  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

and  slabs  of  this  material,  which,  however,  ranks  rather  as    a 
curiosity  than  as  a  commercial  article. 

The  above  list  includes  all  the  travertines,  onyx  marbles, 
calcareous  alabasters,  or  whatever  they  may  be  called,  that,  so 
far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  occur  in  such  form  as  to  be  of  any 
commercial  value.  A  quarry  within  the  limits  of  the  United 
States,  good  in  quality  and  in  quantity,  will  prove  a  rich  "  find  " 
for  somebody. 

(5)  LIMESTONES   AND   DOLOMITES   OTHER  THAN   MARBLES. 

Alabama. — A  dark  compact  limestone  occurs  near  Calera, 
in  Shelby  County,  and  a  light-colored,  finely  fossiliferous  one 
near  Dickson,  in  Colbert  County.  The  last  mentioned  closely 
resembles  in  general  appearance  the  celebrated  limestone  from 
Bedford,  Indiana,  to  be  noticed  later.  It  appears  of  good  qual- 
ity, and  works  readily. 

Arkansas. — Oolitic  limestone  suitable  for  building,  and  hav- 
ing the  reputation  of  being  very  durable,  is  stated  by  Mr. 
Owen*  to  occur  near  Batesville,  in  Independence  County. 
Prof.  Branner  also  reports  f  a  cream-colored  magnesian  lime- 
stone of  good  quality  as  occurring  in  the  vicinity  of  Eureka 
Springs  in  Carroll  County. 

Colorado. — The  National  collections  from  this  State  show  a 
coarse,  reddish  limestone  from  Jefferson  County,  and  also  a 
very  compact,  finely  crystalline  black  stone,  traversed  by  a 
coarse  net-work  of  very  fine  white  lines,  from  Pitkin  in  Gunni- 
son  County.  This  last  stone  takes  a  polish,  and  might  almost 
be  classed  as  a  marble.  Neither  stone  is  now  quarried  to  any 
extent. 

*  Geology  of  Arkansas,  vol.  i.  p.  220. 
f  Stone,  Oct.  1889,  p.  93. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  123 

Florida. — This  State  at  present  furnishes  scarcely  anything 
in  the  line  of  building  stone,  nor  is  there  much  demand  for  any 
other  form  of  building  material  than  wood.  On  Anastasia 
Island,  about  two  miles  from  Saint  Augustine,  there  was 
formerly  quarried  to  a  considerable  extent  a  very  coarse  and 
porous  shell  limestone  which  was  used  in  the  construction  of 
the  old  city  of  Saint  Augustine  and  of  Fort  Marion,  which  was 
built  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  rock 
is  composed  simply  of  shells  of  a  bivalve  mollusk,  more  or  less 
broken  and  cemented  together  by  the  same  material  in  a  more 
finely  divided  state.  Fragments  of  shells  an  inch  or  more  in 
diameter  occur.  The  rock  is  loosely  compacted  and  very  por- 
ous, but  in  a  mild  climate  like  that  of  Florida  is  nevertheless 
durable.  The  quarries  were  opened  upwards  of  two  hun- 
dred years  ago,  but  the  stone  is  not  now  extensively  used,  ow- 
ing in  part  to  the  dampness  of  houses  constructed  of  it, 
and  in  part  to  the  cheapness  of  wood.  The  rock,  which  is 
popularly  known  as  Coquina  (the  Spanish  word  for  shell),  is  of 
Upper  Eocene  age.  In  the  quarries  the  stone  lies  within  a  few 
feet  of  the  surface,  and  can  be  cut  out  with  an  ax,  in  sizes 
and  shapes  to  suit. 

The  oolitic  limestone  occurring  at  Key  West  has  been 
quarried  and  used  in  the  construction  of  numerous  private  and 
public  buildings  in  that  vicinity.  It  is  of  too  loose  and  porous 
a  texture  to  be  of  value  for  other  than  local  use. 

Illinois. — No  siliceous  crystalline  rocks  of  any  kind  are  to 
be  found  within  the  State  limits,  almost  the  entire  product 
being  limestone  or  dolomite,  with  a  few  quarries  of  sandstone, 
which  are  noticed  on  p.  260.  According  to  Professor  Conover* 
the  State  embraces  rocks  representing  most  of  the  epochs  of 
the  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Carboniferous  ages.  Over  the 

*  Report  of  Tenth  Census,  vol.  x.  1880. 


124  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

greater  part  of  its  area  these  rocks  have  been  but  little  dis- 
turbed, and  occur  with  beds  approximately  horizontal  or  in- 
clined at  a  small  angle  to  the  horizon. 

The  surface  of  the  State  is  almost  everywhere  covered  by  a 
variable  depth  of  the  looser  deposits  of  the  Tertiary  and  Qua- 
ternary ages.  Owing  partly  to  the  nature  of  the  rock,  but 
most  largely  in  all  probabilities  to  these  subsequent  deposits, 
a  very  large  portion  of  the  country  presents  a  very  level  or 
slightly  undulating  prairie  surface,  within  the  limits  of  which 
are  few  rock  exposures.  This  is  true  of  the  whole  central  and 
eastern  part  of  the  State,  the  larger  portion  of  its  territory. 

Skirting  this  great  area  on  all  sides  except  the  east,  is  a 
country  of  very  different  character,  though  the  change  is 
gradual — a  valley  country  with  very  marked  water  courses, 
which  cut  through  the  beds  of  clay  and  sand  to  and  into  the 
rock  formations  below.  Throughout  the  greater  part  of  this 
area  the  rocks  immediately  underlying  are  Silurian,  Devonian, 
or  Sub-carboniferous,  all  of  which  furnish  excellent  building 
materials,  and  but  few  localities  of  considerable  area  are  found 
where  at  least  a  fair  building  material  cannot  easily  be 
obtained. 

The  most  notable  of  the  limestones  of  this  State  is  the  fine 
grained,  very  light-colored  Niagara  stone,  quarried  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Lemont  and  Joliet,  in  Will  County.  The  Lemont  quar- 
ries lie  on  both  sides  of  the  Illinois  and  Lake  Michigan  Canal, 
and  the  beds  of  stone  are  quarried  to  their  lower  limits  through 
a  variable  thickness  of  from  12  to  40  feet.  The  stone  here  is 
uniformly  a  fine-grained,  homogeneous,  light-drab'  limestone, 
occurring  in  beds  from  6  to  24,  and  sometimes  30  inches  in 
thickness.  The  beds  are  divided  vertically  by  seams  occurring 
at  intervals  of  from  12  to  50  feet,  and  continuing  with  smooth 
faces  for  long  distances,  and  also  by  a  second  set  running 
nearly  at  right  angles  with  the  first,  but  only  continuous  be- 


STOATES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  125 


tween  massive  joints  and  at  irregular  intervals.  This  structure 
renders  the  rock  very  easily  quarried  and  obtainable  in  blocks 
of  almost  any  required  dimensions.  The  stone  is  soft  and 
easily  worked,  taking  readily  a  smooth  surface,  but  no  polish. 
It  can  be  turned  on  a  lathe,  and  is  made  into  balustrades  and 
other  forms  of  ornamental  work.  It  can  be  carved  in  bas 
relief,  but  is  not  sufficiently  tough  for  high  reliefs  that  are  to  be 
exposed  to  the  weather.  To  produce  smooth  surfaces  for 
flagging,  the  stone  is  planed  by  machines  somewhat  similar 
to  those  used  in  planing  iron.  The  stone  from  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  Lemont  is  said  to  contain  less  iron  and  to  tarnish 
less  readily  than  that  a  few  miles  distant  at  Joliet. 

The  stone  in  the  quarry  contains  much  moisture,  and  dur- 
ing cold  weather  care  has  to  be  taken  to  avoid  injury  by  freez- 
ing before  the  quarry  water  has  evaporated.  This  causes  a  con- 
siderable annual  expense  in  making  earth  protections,  except 
in  those  few  quarries  that  are  so  situated  that  they  can  be 
flooded  with  water  during  the  winter  months. 

The  quarries  extend  for  nearly  4  miles  below  Lemont, 
where  a  gap  occurs,  to  just  below  Lockport,  from  which  point 
a  line  of  closely-adjoining  quarries  extend  to  below  Joliet. 
The  finer  varieties  of  the  stone  do  not  seem  well  fitted  for 
heavy  masonry  in  damp  situations.  Fine  clay  seams  abound, 
which  are  invisible  when  the  stone  is  first  quarried,  and  which 
under  favorable  circumstances  do  not  develop  at  all,  but  when 
exposed  to  heavy  pressure  or  to  alternate  moisture  and  dryness, 
accompanied  by  frost,  they  are  soon  developed,  and  often 
render  the  stone  worthless.  Even  the  best  varieties  of  the 
stone  tarnish  after  a  short  exposure,  especially  in  cities  where 
soft  coal  is  burned. 

The  Joliet  quarries  extend  from  a  point  about  a  mile  below 
Lockport  to  the  same  distance  below  Joliet.  Two  distinct 
varieties  of  stone  occur.  That  quarried  from  the  lower  beds 


126  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  is  as  a  rule  rougher,  more  coarsely 
textured,  and  tarnishes  more  readily  than  that  from  the  higher 
levels.  It  is  now  but  little  used,  except  for  heavy  masonry. 
In  the  quarries  back  from  the  river,  on  the  higher  levels,  the 
stone  is  fine  grained,  more  homogeneous,  and  in  this  respect 
fully  equal  to  the  Lemont  stones.  The  beds  now  worked  are 
from  3  to  4  feet  in  thickness,  and  large  blocks  are  obtainable. 
Most  of  it  seems  to  weather-stain  rather  more  than  that  from 
Lemont.  The  value  of  the  stone  quarried  at  these  two  places 
is  probably  fully  equal  to  that  of  all  the  other  stone  quarried 
in  the  State.* 

Three  large  quarries  are  worked  in  these  same  formations 
at  Batavia,  but  as  a  rule  the  stone  is  coarser  and  more  difficult 
to  work  than  those  just  described.  Other  quarries  occur  at 
Thornton  and  Blue  Island,  Cook  County,  and  other  parts  of 
the  State.  Within  the  city  limits  of  Chicago  there  is  quarried 
from  this  same  formation  a  coarser  somewhat  cellular  stone, 
that  from  its  unique  character  perhaps  merits  a  special  descrip- 
tion. According  to  Huntf  this  stone  when  pure  is  a  nearly 
white  granular  crystalline  dolomite,  containing  54.6  per  cent 
carbonate  of  lime.  It,  however,  contains  so  large  a  portion  of 
bituminous  matter,  that  blocks  sometimes  become  quite  black 
on  exposure.  The  color  fades  somewhat  in  time,  but  the 
petroleum  odor  is  often  perceptible  for  long  distances.  The 
stone  has  been  used  to  some  extent  for  building  purposes,  as 
notably  in  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  in  Chicago.  The 


*  These  beds  were  formerly  described  as  composed  of  light  buff  stone,  while 
the  deeper  portions  of  the  quarries  now  furnish  "  bluestone."  The  difference 
results  from  the  difference  in  amount  of  oxidation  of  the  small  quantity  of  iron 
disseminated  through  the  whole  mass,  the  change  having  resulted  from  atmos- 
pheric influences.  The  same  change  must  ultimately  take  place  in  all  the  blue- 
stone  which  is  brought  to  the  surface.  (Geology  of  Illinois,  vol.  iv.  p.  220.) 

f  Chemical  and  Geological  Essays,  p.  172. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  I2/ 

gummy  bituminous  matter  causes  the  dust  from  the  streets  to 
adhere  to  exposed  surfaces,  thus  giving  the  buildings  a  peculiar 
antique  appearance.  We  are  informed  by  Mr.  Batchen  that 
this  pseudo-antique  appearance  is  greatly  admired  by  some. 
The  presence  of  the  bitumen  is  beneficial  in  at  least  one  re- 
spect, in  that  it  renders  the  stone  less  pervious  to  moisture, 
and  hence  less  liable  to  disintegration  by  freezing. 

Lower  Silurian  (Trenton)  limestones  and  dolomities  are 
quite  extensively  quarried  in  Jo  Daviess  County,  and  make  a 
handsome  and  very  durable  building  material.  Calhoun, 
Alexandria,  and  Ogle  Counties  also  furnish  good  material,  but 
which,  for  the  lack  of  space,  cannot  be  described  here  in  detail. 
At  various  points  in  Whiteside  and  Hopkins  Counties  there 
are  outcrops  of  limestones  belonging  to  the  Cincinnati  group, 
a  part  of  which  will  furnish  durable  building  material.  The 
stone  needs,  however,  to  be  selected  with  the  greatest  care, 
since  all  the  beds  are  not  of  equal  quality. 

At  Jonesborough,  in  Union  County,  there  occurs  a  fine, 
even-grained,  compact,  beautifully  oolitic  stone  that  cuts  to  a 
sharp  even  edge,  and  seems  admirably  adapted  for  carved  work 
and  general  building  purposes  as  well.  Specimens  in  the  Na- 
tional Museum  are  of  a  lighter  color  than  the  Bedford  (Ind.) 
oolitic  and  take  a  better  polish.  We  have  had  no  means  of 
ascertaining  its  lasting  qualities,  but  it  is  stated*  to  be  liable 
to  injury  from  frost  when  exposed  in  damp  places.  The  stone 
is  of  Carboniferous  age.  Other  oolitic  stones  occur  at  Rose- 
clair,  in  Hardin  County.  They  are  of  a  dark  bluish-gray  color 
and  take  a  good  polish. 

There  are  many  other  localities  in  the  State  which  furnish 
excellent  varieties  of  building  stone.  These  can  not  be  men- 
tioned here  for  lack  of  space.  Interested  parties  are  therefore 

*  Report  of  Tenth  Census,  vol.  x.  p.  225. 


128  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

referred  to  the  National  Museum  collections  and  to  the  report 
of  the  Tenth  Census. 

Indiana. — The  limestones  of  Indiana,  such  as  are  quarried 
for  architectural  purposes,  belong  either  to  the  Upper  Silurian 
or  sub-Carboniferous  formations  in  the  central  and  southern 
part  of  the  State.  Few  quarries  of  any  importance  lie  north 
of  Indianapolis,  and  of  such  as  do  the  output  is  used  mainly 
for  the  manufacture  of  quicklime.  According  to  Prof.  Collett* 
the  southeastern  part  of  the  state  supplies  a  large  quantity  of 
stone  for  foundations  and  rubble  masonry  from  the  bluffs 
along  the  Ohio  River  and  which  extend  through  Wayne,  Union, 
Fayette,  Franklin,  Dearborn,  Ohio,  and  Switzerland,  west  to 
Clark  County,  besides  being  found  to  some  extent  in  the  coun- 
ties adjoining  these  to  the  west,  which  are  included  in  the 
Lower  Silurian  geological  range. 

Close-grained,  compact,  magnesian  limestones  are  largely 
quarried  in  the  counties  bordering  the  above  on  the  west, 
forming  a  belt  extending  northward  from  the  Ohio  to  the 
Wabash  River  in  Carroll,  Cash,  Miami,  Wabash  and  Hunting- 
ton,  and  to  some  extent  in  the  counties  to  the  northeast  of 
these.  The  stone  lies  in  even  beds,  having  a  thickness  of  from 
a  few  inches  to  two  or  more  feet,  and  is  especially  adapted  to 
work  in  foundations,  piers,  abutments  and  massive  range  work 
where  great  strength  is  required.  The  thinner  strata  furnish, 
at  a  low  cost,  excellent  slabs  for  flagging  and  curbstones. 

From  Warren  County  at  the  extreme  west  of  the  State, 
southwesterly  to  the  Ohio  River,  in  a  gradually  widening  range, 
the  valuable  limestones  of  the  Keokuk  group,  (sub-Carbonifer- 
ous), the  sand  stones  of  the  Chester,  and  oolitic  limestones  of 
the  intermediate  St.  Louis  group,  are  quarried.  By  far  the 
most  beautiful  and  valuable  of  this  stone  for  architectural  pur- 

*  Twelfth  Annual  Report  State  Geologist,  1882,  p.  20. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  1 29 

poses,  is  the  oolitic  variety  from  Lawrence,  Monroe,  Owen, 
Crawford,  Harrison  and  Washington  Counties.  The  supply  is 
inexhaustible,  as  it  lies  in  massive  strata  of  twenty  to  seventy 
feet  thick,  over  an  area  of  more  than  seventy  square  miles. 

The  Lawrence  County  stone  is  extensively  quarried  near 
Bedford  and  is  popularly  known  as  "  Bedford  stone  "  or  "  Bed- 
ford oolite."  The  rock  is  of  fine  even  texture,  and  is  composed 
of  small  rounded  concretionary  grains  of  about  the  size  of  a 
grain  of  mustard  seed  compactly  cemented  together  by  crys- 
talline lime  or  calcite.  The  stone  is  soft,  but  tenacious  (speci- 
mens having  borne  a  pressure  of  12,000  pounds  per  square 
inch),  and  works  readily  in  every  direction.  It  is  therefore  a 
great  favorite  for  carved  work,  and  is  used  more  extensively 
for  this  purpose  than  any  other  of  our  limestones.  No  better 
example  of  the  adaptability  of  the  stone  for  this  purpose  can 
be  given  than  the  elegant  mansion  of  Mr.  C.  J.  Vanderbilt,  on 
Fifth  avenue,  in  New  York  City.  Unfortunately,  as  is  usually 
the  case  with  light  limestones,  this  stains  badly  in  cities  \lj|tere 
there  is  a  great  amount  of  manufacturing,  as  is  only  too  well 
illustrated  in  the  case  referred  to.  .  \ 

Although  the  quarries  have  been  worked  systematically  for 
but  a  few  years,  the  stone  is  already  widely  known,  and  is  com- 
ing into  very  general  use  in  nearly  every  city  of  importance  in 
the  country.  At  the  locality  above  referred  to  the  stone 
occurs  in  a  solid  bed,  that  has  been  worked  to  a  depth  of  40 
feet  without  reaching  the  bottom. 

Stones  from  the  other  counties  mentioned  are  very  similar 
in  general  appearance,  but  not  always  so  distinctly  oolitic  and 
often  contain  a  considerable  percentage  of  bituminous  matter. 
Samples  exhibited  at  the  Museum  from  near  Corydon  in  Har- 
rison County  are  of  a  beautifully  fine  and  even  oolitic  structure, 
very  light  color,  firm  and  compact.  They  resemble  the  oolitic 
stone  from  Princeton,  Kentucky,  more  closely  than  any  other, 


ISO  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

but  are  much  more  compact.  The  stone  is  stated  to  occur  in 
inexhaustible  quantities. 

The  Washington  County  deposit  at  Salem  is  said  to  be  an 
exceptionally  fine  one,  there  being  a  solid  bed  of  the  oolite  30 
feet  in  thickness,  with  only  about  5  feet  of  cap  rock. 

Near  Silverville,  in  Lawrence  County,  there  occurs  a  very 
fine-grained  compact  stone  of  a  drab  color,  that  acquires  readily 
a  smooth  and  even  surface.  An  attempt  has  been  made  to 
utilize  this  for  lithographic  purposes,  but,  it  is  stated,  with  in- 
different success.  It  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the  darker 
variety  of  the  well-known  Bavarian  lithographic  stone,  but  is 
somewhat  harder. 

At  Anderson,  in  Madison  County,  a  light-colored,  fine-grained 
stone  occurs  in  beds  of  from  4  to  12  inches  in  thickness,  which 
is  used  locally  for  flagging  and  general  trimming  purposes. 

lozva. — Although  this  State  abounds  in  limestones  and 
dolomites  to  the  exclusion  of  almost  all  other  varieties  of  build- 
ing stone,  but  little  of  the  material  now  quarried  is  of  such  a 
nature  as  ever  to  acquire  more  than  a  local  reputation.  Though 
having  altogether  more  than  three  times  the  number  of  quarries 
found  in  Illinois,  these  are  mostly  small  affairs,  and  the  value 
of  the  total  product  is  but  little  more  than  one-half  that  of  the 
latter  State.  At  the  time  of  the  taking  of  the  Tenth  Census 
the  whole  number  of  quarries  in  the  State  was  131,  of  which 
128  were  of  limestone  and  dolomites,  and  the  remaining  three 
of  sandstone,  which  are  mentioned  on  p.  261. 

At  the  present  time  the  most  important  quarries  are  situ- 
ated in  the  Niagara* division  of  the  Upper  Silurian  formations, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Stone  City,  Jones  County  ;  Farley,  Dubuque 
County,  and  in  various  portions  of  Jackson,  Cedar,  Clinton,  and 
Scott  Counties.  The  Jones  County  stone  is  a  very  light-colored, 
fine-grained  and  compact  bituminous  dolomite.  That  from 
Farley  is  very  similar  in  general  appearance,  but  contains  less 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING   AND  DECORATION.  131 

bituminous  matter.  In  the  small  blocks  displayed  at  the 
National  Museum  the  stones  appear  of  good  quality,  but  we 
have  had  no  opportunity  of  learning  their  weathering  qualities. 

A  finely  crystalline  light-colored  limestone  of  sub-Carboni- 
ferous age  is  quite  extensively  quarried  near  Burlington,  in 
Des  Moines  County.  According  to  Professor  McGee  *  this 
stone,  which  is  practically  identical  with  that  of  Keokuk,  in 
Lee  County,  is  used  chiefly  for  common  masonry,  and  only 
occasionally  for  dressed  work.  The  upper  beds  are  "  nearly 
white  in  color,  fine,  compact,  homogeneous,  and  hard,  with  a 
conchoidal  or  splintery  fracture,  like  the  so-called  lithographic 
limestone  of  nearly  the  same  geological  age.  This  stone  has 
been  used  to  some  extent  for  ornamental  purposes,  but  con- 
tains too  many  incipient  fractures,  and  is  too  liable  to  unex- 
pected disruption  to  be  of  special  value." 

Near  Le  Grand  and  Montour,  in  Tama  County,  there 
occurs  a  magnesian  limestone  of  the  same  age  as  that  just  de- 
scribed, which  is  fine-grained,  compact,  and  generally  buff  or 
whitish  in  color.  The  coarser  portions  are  extensively  used  for 
heavy  masonry,  while  the  finer  grades,  which  are  often  beauti- 
fully veined  with  iron  oxidies,  are  used  for  ornamental  work 
under  the  name  of  Iowa  marbles.  Some  of  the  stone  from 
this  locality  is  oolitic.  Similar  stones  are  extensively  quarried 
at  Iowa  Falls,  and  at  Humboldt  and  Dakota,  in  Humboldt 
County.  Limestones  and  dolomites  belonging  to  the  St.  Louis 
epoch  of  the  sub-Carboniferous  age  are  quite  extensively  quar- 
ried in  various  parts  of  Lee,  Des  Moines,  Henry,  Washington, 
Van  Buren,  Jefferson,  Keokuk,  Wapello,  Manhaska,  Marion, 
Story,  Hamilton,  and  Webster  Counties.  That  from  near 
Farmington,  Van  Buren  County,  varies  from  light  buff  to 
nearly  white  in  color,  is  fine-grained,  and  has  been  quarried  for 

*  Report  of  Tenth  Census,  vol.  x.  p.  261. 


132  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

lithographic  purposes.  It  is,  however,  no  longer  used,  having 
been  found  to  contain  too  many  dry  seams  often  cemented  by 
crystalline  carbonate  of  lime.  At  Chequest  the  limestone  takes 
a  fair  polish  and  is  known  as  Chequest  marble. 

In  the  Devonian  limestones  near  Iowa  City  and  Roberts 
Ferry  there  frequently  occur  masses  of  fossil  coral  (Acervularia 
davidsoni)  which,  when  cut  and  polished,  form  beautiful  orna- 
ments and  paper-weights,  though  of  small  size.  They  are 
known  popularly  as  bird's-eye  and  fish-egg  marbles,  and  have 
already  been  noticed  (ante,  p.  92). 

Kansas. — The  limestones  and  dolomites  of  this  State  are, 
as  a  rule,  of  a  light  color,  soft  and  porous,  and  incapable  of  re- 
ceiving a  polish  such  as  will  fit  them  for  any  form  of  ornamental 
work.  Many  of  them  are  cellular  and  loosely  compacted, 
being  made  up  in  large  part  of  a  small  fossil  rhizopod  about 
the  size  of  a  grain  of  wheat  and  known  under  the  name  of 
fusulina.  Such  stones  are  obviously  unfitted  for  exposed 
work  in  localities  subject  to  great  extremes  of  temperature, 
although  they  may  be  very  durable  in  mild  or  dry  climates. 
Those  at  present  quarried  are  almost  without  exception  of  Car- 
boniferous or  Permian  age,  and  occur  only  in  thin  beds,  varying 
from  a  few  inches  to  8  or  10  feet  in  thickness. 

Near  Irving  their  occurs  a  light-colored,  soft,  thin-bedded 
stone,  which  has  in  times  past  been  used  for  building  purposes 
in  Atchison  and  Kansas  City.  It  is  soft  and  easily  quarried 
and  for  ordinary  construction  requires  but  little  dressing.  At 
Frankfort  a  similar  stone  occurs  which  has  been  used  to  some 
extent  for  buildings,  though  principally  for  foundations.  Some 
of  the  stones  from  these  localities  are  of  very  poor  quality,  being 
soft  and  quite  cellular  through  the  breaking  away  of  the  small 
fossils  above  referred  to.  Atchison,  in  the  same  county,  has 
quarries  of  a  darker,  more  compact  stone,  which  are  worked 
for  local  use. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  133 

In  the  vicinity  of  Topeka  there  are  quarried  light-colored, 
compact,  finely  fossiliferous  dolomites  and  limestones  which 
work  very  readily,  and  which  have  been  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  about  thirty-five  common  buildings  in  that  city,  besides 
a  church,  school,  and  opera  houses  in  Emporia.  They  have 
also  been  used  in  Parsons,  in  Labette  County,  and  neighboring 
towns  in  Missouri. 

Near  Lane,  in  Franklin  County,  gray  and  buff  limestones 
are  quarried  and  used  quite  extensively  in  Ottawa  and  Garnett, 
in  the  same  State,  though  some  have  been  shipped  to  Chicago. 
The  buff  variety  is  sometimes  oolitic,  resembling  to  some 
extent  the  Bedford  (Indiana)  stone.  The  texture  is  firm  and 
compact,  and  it  acquires  a  good  surface  and  polish.  The  gray 
variety  is  coarser,  and  often  somewhat  cellular,  owing  to  the 
imperfect  filling  of  the  spaces  between  the  fossil  particles  of 
which  it  is  composed.  A  section  of  the  quarry  shows  the  gray 
stone  to  occur  in  a  bed  about  4  feet  in  thickness,  and  the  buff 
oolitic  about  6  feet  in  thickness,  the  layers  of  which  vary  from 
18  to  24  inches  each. 

Near  Marion  Center,  in  Marion  County,  there  is  quarried  a 
light-drab  cellular  magnesian  limestone  of  Permian  age,  that 
has  been  used  in  the  construction  of  the  asylum  for  the  blind 
and  insane  at  Wyandotte  and  Topeka,  in  this  State.  Similar 
stones  are  quarried  at  Cottonwood,  in  Chase  County.  The 
stratum  of  quarry  rock  here  is  some  6  feet  in  thickness  and 
blocks  of  any  desired  size  and  of  thickness  not  exceeding  2^ 
feet  can  be  obtained.  The  principal  markets  for  these  stones 
are  Kansas  City,  Missouri ;  Lincoln  and  Omaha,  Nebraska ; 
Pueblo  and  Denver,  Colorado,  and  Atchison,  Topeka,  and 
Leavenworth,  Kansas. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Scott  are  some  half  a  dozen 
irregularly  worked  quarries  which  furnish  stone  for  building 
foundations  and  pavements  in  the  near  vicinity.  The  stone  is 
dark-colored,  fine-grained,  and  semi-crystalline,  and  is  said  to 


134  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

stand  the  wear  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  years'  exposure  very  well. 
It  turns  to  a  brownish  color  on  long  exposure  and  is  strong 
enough  for  ordinary  structures.  The  stone  quarried  at 
Winfield  is  a  light-colored,  fine-grained  cellular  rock  and  so 
soft  as  to  be  quarried  by  means  of  plug  and  feathers  only,  the 
holes  being  first  bored  by  means  of  a  common  auger  without 
point.  It  is  a  handsome  stone  and  has  a  good  reputation  for 
durability.  It  is  used  mostly  in  this  State,  though  some  is 
shipped  to  Kansas  City,  Missouri. 

Many  of  the  towns  in  Butler  County  produce  fine-grained, 
light-colored  limestones  suitable  for  rough  building  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity,  but  not  at  all  suitable  for  ornamental  work. 

Kentucky. — Although  the  building  stones  of  this  State  are 
entirely  unknown  in  our  principal  markets,  and  but  few  of  them 
have  more  than  a  strictly  local  reputation,  it  by  no  means 
follows  that  there  is  any  lack  of  material  or  that  it  is  at  all  in- 
ferior in  quality.  While  it  is  true  that  no  marbles  or  granites 
of  importance  are  found,  yet  there  abound  limestones  of  the 
finest  quality  and  in  inexhaustible  quanities.  The  oolitic  lime- 
stones of  this  State  are  without  superiors,  if  indeed  they  have 
equals.  In  Todd,  Grayson,  Meade,  Simpson,  Christian,  and 
Caldwell  Counties  oolitic  stones  occur  of  very  light,  almost 
white  color,  and  excellent  quality.  The  varieties  from  Litch- 
field  and  Princeton  are  especially  worthy  of  mention.  The 
oolitic  character  is  very  pronounced  in  these  stones,  and  while 
in  some  cases  the  production  of  a  perfect  surface  is  impossible, 
owing  to  the  breaking  away  of  these  minute  rounded  grains, 
still  in  the  better  qualities  the  sharp  edges  and  smooth  surfaces 
are  as  readily  acquired  as  on  the  celebrated  Bedford  (Indiana) 
or  other  stones  of  this  character.  These  are  superior  to  the 
Bedford  stone,  moreover,  in  their  clear  and  uniform  colors; 
never,  so  far  as  observed,  being  blotched  with  oil,  as  is  the  latter. 
Professor  Proctor  informs  the  writer  that  the  stone  is  quarried 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  135 

with  ease,  is  easily  wrought,  stands  pressure  well,  and  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  most  reliable  stones  in  the  State. 

Compact  fine-grained  limestones  of  a  dark  drab  color,  tak- 
ing a  smooth  surface,  but  not  suited  for  marble,  are  found  in 
the  towns  of  Franklin,  Simpson  County ;  Lebanon,  Marion 
County ;  Russellville,  Logan  County,  and  others.  A  part  of 
the  Franklin  County  stone  is  fine-grained  and  suitable  for 
lithographic  purposes,  though  inferior  to  the  imported  Bava- 
rian stone.  Very  light-colored  compact  limestones  are  found 
also  in  Simpson,  Logan,  and  Franklin  Counties,  but  the  writer 
has  no  information  regarding  their  availability  or  the  extent  to 
which  they  are  quarried. 

Maine. — Limestone  is  an  abundant  and  common  rock  in 
this  State,  especially  in  the  southeastern  part,  in  the  counties 
of  Knox  and  Lincoln,  where  it  is  very  extensively  burnt  into 
quicklime.  So  far  as  I  am  aware  none  of  the  stone  is  utilized 
for  building,  as  its  colors — blue  and  blue-black,  veined  with 
white — are  poorly  adapted  for  such  purposes.  No  stone  suit- 
able for  marble  is  yet  known  to  occur  in  the  State,  though 
Hitchcock*  expresses  the  opinion  that  such  may  yet  be  found 
in  "the  belt  of  Helderberg  limestone  running  from  Mataga- 
mon  (east  branch  Penobscot)  River  northeasterly." 

Many  samples  of  so-called  white  marble  have  been  taken 
from  the  limestone  formations  about  Rockland,  in  Knox 
County,  but,  so  far  as  observed  by  the  present  writer,  they  are 
all  too  coarsely  crystalline  or  too  distinctly  granular  in  struct- 
ure to  be  of  value. 

Michigan. — Limestone  or  dolomites  of  a  character  suitable 
for  building  purposes  are  at  present  but  little  quarried  in  this 
State,  the  entire  value  of  the  output  during  the  census  year  of 
1880  being  but  about  $26,000.  A  fine-grained  fossiliferous 

*  Second  Annual  Report  Geology  of  Maine,  1862,  p.  428. 


136  STONES  FOR   BUILDING   AND   DECORATION. 

dolomite  of  a  drab  color  is  worked  at  Sibley's  Station,  in 
Wayne  County,  and  a  very  light  colored  granular  rock,  of  sim- 
ilar composition,  near  Raisinville,  in  Monroe  County.  Near 
Alpena  light-colored  limestones  are  quarried  which  are  hard, 
compact,  and  said  to  be  durable.  They  are  not  obtainable 
anywhere  in  large  quantities  nor  in  blocks  of  large  size,  but 
there  are  numerous  small  openings  sufficient  to  supply  the 
local  demand.  Other  localities  where  stone  can  be  obtained  are 
at  Trenton,  near  Detroit,  and  upon  Macon  Creek,  both  in 
Monroe  County.  The  stone  is  apt  to  contain  dry  seams  and 
requires  care  in  selecting.  These  are  all  of  Devonian  age. 

Minnesota. —  The  Lower  Silurian  limestones  and  dolomites 
of  this  State,  which  are  at  present  the  only  ones  quarried,  are 
nearly  all  of  a  light  buff,  drab,  or  blue  color,  fine-grained  and 
compact,  though  in  some  cases  cellular  and  semi-crystalline. 
According  to  Professor  Winchell*  the  stone  appears  in  the 
bluffs  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  St.  Croix  Valley,  and  is 
quarried  at  all  points  (except  Lake  City)  where  there  is  any 
demand  between  Stillwater  and  Winona,  along  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  on  the  Minnesota  side,  and  also  at  several  places 
farther  west,  as  at  Caledonia,  in  Houston  County,  Lanesbor- 
ough  and  Rushford,  in  Fillmore  County,  and  at  points  in 
Winona  County. 

At  Stillwater  the  rock  is  a  silicious  dolomite  of  a  light  buff 
color.  In  the  ledge,  which  is  about  45  feet  thick,  it  occurs  in 
alternate  bands  of  compact  and  cellular  rock  varying  from  3  to 
6  feet  in  thickness.  The  coarser  variety  is  most  durable  and  is 
used  in  heavy  masonry,  as  bridges  and  foundations.  The  finer 
variety  is  used  for  house  trimming,  ashlar  work  and  tomb- 
stones. 

At  St.  Paul  the  rock  is  a  fine  light-bluish  semi-crystalline 

*  Report  Tenth  Census,  p.  249,  and  Geology  of  Minnesota,  vol.  T. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 


magnesian  limestone.  It  is  usually  quite  regularly  stratified, 
and  occurs  in  beds  from  3  to  24  inches  in  thickness,  with 
joints  from  10  to  30  feet  apart.  Blocks  10  by  5  by  2  feet  can 
be  obtained  if  desired.  It  is  used  only  locally.  At  Minne- 
apolis the  rock  is  quite  similar,  though  sometimes  slightly 
fossiliferous  or  mottled  with  argillaceous  spots.  It  was  formerly 
used  almost  exclusively  in  Minneapolis,  but  is  now  being  grad- 
ually replaced  by  stone  from  the  neighboring  States. 

In  speaking  of  these  stones  Professor  Winchell  says:  * 
"  In  the  use  of  the  Trenton  limestone  quarried  at  St. 
Paul  and  Minneapolis  regard  should  be  had  constantly  to  its 
laminated  structure.  The  beds  quarried  now  are  as  they  were 
originally  deposited,  and  as  cut  for  use  embrace  in  every  block 
many  layers  of  from  one-half  to  two  inches  in  thickness. 
These  consist  of  alternating  clayey  and  calcareous  portions, 
the  latter  constituting  the  hard  and  enduring  part  of  t|ie  stone. 
These  layers  are  not  always  distinct  and  continuous  over  large 
surfaces,  but  they  blend  or  shade  into  each  other  every  few 
inches.  Yet  in  process  of  time,  under  natural  weathering,  they 
get  separated  so  as  to  fall  apart,  the  clayey  matter  disintegrat- 
ing first  and  causing  the  calcareous  structure  which  sustains  the 
whole  to  break  up  into  small  sheets  or  fragments.  Hence  this 
stone  should  never  be  placed  on  edge,  but  in  the  same  posi- 
tion it  occupied  in  the  quarry.  It  should  never  be  allowed  to 
occupy  projecting  or  exposed  parts  of  a  building.  More  es- 
pecially if  it  be  on  edge  and  in  a  projecting  cornice  or  capital 
it  is  the  source  of  weakness  to  the  structure,  as  well  as  of  dan- 
ger to  all  passers,  from  the  dropping  of  sheets  or  fragments  as 
the  weather,  by  wet  or  frost,  separates  them  from  each  other. 
Its  color  is  also  against  its  being  put  in  the  exposed  and  orna- 
mental parts  of  a  structure.  .  .  .  The  color  of  the  Trenton 

*  Preliminary  Report  on  Building  Stone,  etc.,  1889,  p.  33. 


138  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

makes  it  very  suitable  for  foundations  and  for  the  ranges 
below  the  water-table,  but  even  there  it  should  be  well  bedded 
in  mortar  and  protected  by  the  water-table  in  order  to  keep 
out  the  water." 

At  Red  Wing,  in  Goodhue  County,  the  stone  is  quarried 
only  for  local  building  and  for  burning  into  quicklime.  Blocks 
as  large  as  can  conveniently  be  handled  can  be  obtained.  At 
Frontenac,  in  the  same  county,  the  stone  is  of  buff  or  gray 
color,  medium  fine,  and  quite  cellular.  This  rock  is  considered 
one  of  the  best  in  the  State,  and  is  used  for  all  varieties  of 
building  purposes,  as  well  as  for  bases  and  tombstones.  Blocks 
n  by  7  by  5^  ffcet  and  weighing  18  tons  have  been  taken  out, 
which  is  about  as  large  as  the  quarries  will  furnish.  It  is  said 
to  work  with  comparative  ease,  and  to  withstand  the  weather 
well.  Although  having  been  in  use  longer  than  any  other 
stone  in  the  State,  it  has  not  as  yet  shown  any  change  what- 
ever from  atmospheric  influences.  Its  powers  of  resistance  to 
pressure  vary  from  5,000  to  7,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

At  Kasota  and  Mendota,  in  Le  Seuer  County,  the  dolomite 
is  of  a  buff  or  rusty  pink  color,  of  homogeneous  texture,  and 
very  strong  and  durable.  It  withstands  a  pressure  of  10,000 
pounds  per  square  inch  without  crushing.  Blocks  10  by  11  by 
I  foot  in  thickness  can  be  obtained.  It  is  quite  generally  used 
throughout  the  State,  the  pink  variety  being  most  admired  and 
bringing  the  highest  price. 

At  Mankato,  in  Blue  Earth  County,  the  rock  is  also  a  dolo- 
mite, buff  in  color,  fine,  compact,  and  semi-crystalline,  some- 
times cellular.  Blocks  20  by  10  by  6  feet  can  be  obtained  from 
the  quarries. 

At  Winona  the  dolomite  is  quarried  for  general  building 
purposes,  flagging,  and  burning  into  lime.  It  is  of  a  buff  color, 
usually  fine  and  uniform  in  texture,  though  sometimes  contain- 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  139 

ing  cherty  lumps,  and  porous.  Blocks  of  any  size  that  can  be 
handled  may  be  taken  from  the  quarries. 

Missouri. — As  stated  by  Professor  Broadhead,*  the  limestone 
quarries  of  this  State  have  not  as  yet  been  much  developed, 
and  few  have  the  dignity  of  a  merchantable  product.  It  is 
probable  that  under  25,000  square  miles  of  the  State  of  Mis- 
souri there  may  be  found  good  quarries  of  limestone.  A  third 
of  this  area  may  include  beds  of  lower  Carboniferous  limestone, 
and  two  thirds  may  include  the  magnesian  limestone  series  of 
the  upper  Cambrian. 

Good  quarries  of  the  lower  (or  sub-)  Carboniferous  lime- 
stones, very  suitable  for  building  purposes,  may  be  opened  in 
the  counties  from  Cape  Girardeau  to  Clark,  and  from  St. 
Charles  to  Howard,  as  well  as  in  Saline,  Pettis,  Henry,  Cedar, 
Lawrence,  Green,  Jasper,  Newton,  MacDonald  and  Barry. 
Excellent  quarries  of  the  Burlington  beds  have  been  opened 
at  Louisville,  Hannibal,  Sedalia,  and  other  places.  These 
stones  are  usually  of  a  bluish,  gray,  or  brown  color,  somewhat 
coarse  in  texture,  and  most  of  them  have  proven  very  durable. 
The  chief  objection  to  the  stone  is  said  to  be  the  rough  bed- 
ding plane  and,  in  quarrying,  the  frequent  occurrence  of  chert 
beds. 

The  Keokuk  group  of  the  sub-Carboniferous  is  also  an  im- 
portant source  of  quarry  rock  and  material  for  lime.  The 
best  beds  are  found  in  Green,  Lawrence,  Newton  and  Jasper 
Counties.  Like  the  stones  just  described  they  are  coarse 
grained  but  of  a  deeper  blue-gray  color.  There  are  well  devel- 
oped quarries  in  Greenfield,  Ashgrove,  Springfield,  Pierce  City, 
Carthage  and  Neosho.  At  the  latter  place  the  stone  is  beauti- 
fully oolitic.  The  St.  Louis  limestone,  well  exposed  in  the 
city  of  St.  Louis  and  at  St.  Charles,  is  also  a  useful  stone. 

*  Building  Trades  Journal,  July,  1888. 


I4O  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

Ordinarily  it  is  strong,  and  looks  well  in  structure,  reflecting  a 
more  uniform  light  drab  color,  which  is  permanent  on  expos- 
ure. The  beds  of  this  limestone  as  found  at  St.  Genevieve  are 
oolitic. 

An  attempt  was  made  about  fifteen  years  ago  to  introduce 
stone  from  the  Upper  Trenton  beds  into  the  St.  Louis  market, 
but  experience  proved  the  rock  to  be  wanting  in  continued 
elements  of  beauty.  The  stone  would  polish  well  and  present 
a  pleasing  appearance  at  first,  but  it  was  not  sufficiently  uniform 
in  texture,  and  a  certain  fossil  which  was  abundant  was  too 
soon  disintegrated  by  atmospheric  agencies.  The  quarry  was 
therefore  abandoned. 

A  very  fine-grained  and  compact  limestone  of  a  dark  drab 
color  occurs  near  Saverton,  in  Rails  County,  which  has  been 
used  to  some  extent  for  lithographic  purposes.  Stones  from 
other  localities  are  mostly  compact,  and  of  light  or  dull  red 
color.  A  very  light  encrinital  stone  is  quarried  in  the  vicinity 
of  Hamilton  and  Bear  Creek,  in  Marion  County. 

Nebraska. — According  to  Professor  Aughey,*  Carbonifer- 
ous limestones  of  such  quality  as  to  render  them  suitable  for 
building  purposes  are  to  be  found  in  Richardson,  Pawnee,  Gage, 
Johnson,  Nemaha,  Otoe,  and  Cass  Counties.  Many  of  these  as 
those  of  Johnson  County,  are  made  up  almost  wholly  of  minute 
fossils  of  the  size  and  shape  of  a  grain  of  wheat,  and  known  techni- 
cally asfusu/ina.  In  Nemaha  and  Otoe  Counties  the  beds  are 
exposed  along  the  Missouri  River  and  are  here  quarried  and 
used  for  building.  One  of  the  best  and  most  massive  lime- 
stones of  the  State  occurs  below  Plattsmouth  in  Cass  County, 
on  the  banks  of  the  river.  Unfortunately,  the  great  thickness 
of  the  superficial  deposits  here  renders  the  quarries  very 
expensive  in  working.  At  La  Platte,  in  Sarpy  County,  near 

*  Physical  Geography  and  Geology  of  Nebraska,  p.  311. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  14! 

the  line  of  the  Burlington  and  Missouri  Railroad  there  is  also  a 
fine  bed  of  siliceous  limestone,  which  has  been  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  United  States  post-office  and  court-house  in 
Lincoln.  The  stone  contains  innumerable  fusulina  impressions 
and  is  adapted  to  only  general  building,  not  monumental  work. 
Another  exposure  of  this  same  stone  occurs  farther  up  the 
Platte  River  and  which  has  been  worked  on  the  river  bank 
opposite  South  Bend.  This  stone  has  been  used  in  the  wing 
of  the  Capitol  building  at  Lincoln.  At  Syracuse,  in  Otoe 
County,  are  quarries  of  impure,  variously  colored  limestones, 
from  whence  large  quantities  of  building  material  have  been 
taken. 

The  Cretaceous  limestones  of  this  State  are  stated  to  like- 
wise furnish  a  quantity  of  excellent  stone.  So  far  as  the  pres- 
ent writer  has  had  opportunity  of  examining,  few,  if  any,  of 
these  or  the  other  stones  described  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
ever  be  in  great  demand  outside  of  the  limits  of  the  State. 

New  York. — According  to  Professor  Smock,*  the  limestones 
quarried  for  building  stones  in  this  State  belong  to  the  follow- 
ing named  formations,  beginning  with  the  lowest  in  the  geo- 
logical scale :  Calciferous,  Chazy,  Trenton,  Niagara,  Lower 
Helderberg,  Upper  Helderberg  or  Corniferous  and  the  Tully 
limestones.  These  will  be  here  considered  in  the  order 
given. 

Rocks  of  the  Calciferous  formation  may  be  traced  along  the 
Mohawk  valley,  in  Montgomery,  Herkimer  and  Oneida  Coun- 
ties, and  are  quarried  in  numerous  instances,  as  at  Little  Falls, 
Canajoharie  and  Sandhill.  The  rock  is  a  more  or  less  siliceous 
magnesian  limestone,  of  a  drab,  blue-gray  or  blue-black  color, 
and  said  to  be,  as  a  rule,  strong  and  durable.  It  is  largely 
used  for  general  building. 

*  Bulletin  No.  3,  New  York  State  Museum,  1888,  p.  20. 


142  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

The  Chazy  limestone  is  seen  in  Clinton  in  its  typical  devel- 
opment, and  affords  strong  and  heavy  stone  at  various  quar- 
ries in  the  Champlain  valley,  as  at  Willsboro  Point  and  near 
Plattsburgh.  The  Trenton  formation  occupies  the  Mohawk 
and  Champlain  valleys,  a  broader  zone  around  the  western  sides 
of  the  Adirondack  region,  and  the  St.  Lawrence  valley  from 
the  Canada  line  southwest  to  Lake  Ontario.  The  counties  of 
Montgomery,  Fulton,  Herkimer,  Oneida,  Lewris,  Jefferson,  St. 
Lawrence,  Hamilton,  Clinton,  Essex,  Warren  and  Saratoga  all 
have  outcrops  of  limestone  referable  to  this  age.  The  stone 
varies  greatly  in  different  localities,  or  at  times,  even  in  the 
same  outcrop,  the  same  quarry  sometimes  yielding  both 
marble  and  coarse  common  rock  suitable  only  for  building. 
The  Niagara  limestone  has  its  greatest  development  near  the' 
Niagara  River  and  is  quarried  at  Lockport  and  Rochester.  At 
Lockport  the  stone  is  gray,  thick  bedded  and  subcrystalline  ;  it 
has  been  widely  used  for  building  purposes.  The  Lower  Hel- 
derberg  group  includes  a  wide  variation  in  its  limestones. 
The  formation  may  be  traced  from  the  Helderberg  mountains 
westward,  south  of  the  Mohawk  river  nearly  to  Syracuse.  The 
lower  beds  are  dark  colored,  compact,  thick,  and  afford  a  stone 
which  may  be  polished  ;  the  upper  beds  furnish  a  gray,  heavy 
bedded  and  strong  stone  which  answers  for  heavy  masonry. 
Quarries  in  the  rocks  of  this  group  have  been  opened  in  the 
Schoharie  valley  at  Cobbleskill,  Cherry  valley  and  at  Spring- 
field, Otsego  County;  also  near  Hudson,  in  Becrafts  mountain, 
and  near  Catskill.  Rocks  of  the  Upper  Helderberg  group  also 
display  a  great  diversity  throughout  the  areas  they  occupy. 
The  formation  outcrops  in  Onondaga,  Cayuga,  Seneca,  Mon- 
roe, Genesee,  Erie  and  Ulster  Counties,  and  is  quarried  at 
Union  Springs,  Waterloo,  Seneca  Falls,  Auburn,  Leroy,  Wil- 
liamsville,  Buffalo  and  Kingston. 

Only  a  few  of   the  more   important  stones  of   the  above- 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  143 


named  formations  can  be  here  described  in  full,  owing  to  lack 
of  space ;  for  further  information  the  re'ader  is  referred  to  the 
work  quoted. 

At  Greenport,  Columbia  County,  a  stratum  of  Lower  Silu- 
rian limestone  upward  of  60  or  70  feet  in  thickness  is  exten- 
sively worked  for  ornamental  and  building  purposes.  The 
quarry  proper  is  said  to  cover  an  area  of  40  acres,  and  a  face 
30  feet  high  and  half  a  mile  in  length  has  been  opened.  The 
stone  is  of  medium  texture,  semi-crystalline,  highly  fossiliferous, 
and  of  a  water-blue  or  gray  color.  It  is  said  to  have  been  used 
to  some  extent  under  the  name  of  Coral-shell  Marble  for 
interior  decorative  work  in  Boston  and  other  cities.  On  both 
sides  of  the  Hudson  River,  at  the  gorge  of  Glens  Falls,  the 
Trenton  magnesian  limestones  are  worked  both  for  black  mar- 
ble and  for  ordinary  limestone  for  burning  into  quicklime. 
According  to  Professor  Smock,  the  quarry  on  the  right  bank — 
the  Saratoga  County  side  of  the  stream — shows  the  following 
section  : 

1 .  Black  slate  rock  in  thin  layers 15  feet. 

2.  Gray  limestone 10    " 

3.  Black  thin-bedded  limestone 12    " 

4.  Gray  limestone 2    " 

5.  Waxk  Marble 12     " 

6.  Limestone 4    " 

Of  these  the  marble  has  already  been  described  on  p.  98. 
The  gray  limestone  is  used  for  heavy  masonry  and  general 
building,  while  the  main  output  is  used  for  lime  making.  At 
Willsborough  and  Crown  Point,  in  Essex  County,  there  are 
also  extensive  quarries  of  blue-black  magnesian  limestone  of 
good  quality.  In  various  towns  in  Montgomery  County  a 
gray  or  blue-gray  semi-crystalline  limestone  is  worked  for 
building  material.  The  stone  is  said  to  be  strong  and  durable, 
though  care  needs  to  be  used  in  its  selection.  At  Tribes  Hill 


144  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

the  stone  is  gray  or  blue-gray,  in  some  cases  almost  black  on  a 
polished  surface.  It  is  used  for  house  trimmings  and  ashlar 
work  as  well  as  bridge  construction.  Several  churches  in  Am- 
sterdam are  of  this  material.  At  Canajoharie,  in  this  same 
county,  are  beds  that  furnish  a  blue-gray  finely  crystalline 
stone,  which  has  been  used  in  mill  buildings  at  Utica,  and  in 
the  churches  of  Fort  Plain  and  Canajoharie.  At  the  Indian 
reservation  in  Onondaga  County  a  gray,  compact,  semi-crys- 
talline limestone,  said  to  possess  great  strength  and  durability, 
was  formerly  extensively  quarried,  but  the  work  has  of  late 
fallen  off  somewhat,  owing  to  lack  of  transportation  facilities. 
A  gray  crinoidal  stone  that  takes  a  fair  polish  is  also  found  at 
Onondaga,  in  the  same  county. 

Professor  Smock  describes  this  gray  variety  as  resembling 
the  best  varieties  of  the  Maine  granites  when  finely  cut.  It  has 
been  used  in  many  of  the  finest  structures  in  Syracuse,  includ- 
ing the  new  U.  S.  Government  building,  the  Hall  of  Languages, 
Syracuse  University,  and  several  churches. 

At  Auburn,  in  Cayuga  County,  the  Upper  Helderberg  beds 
furnish  large  amounts  of  gray  and  blue-gray  magnesian  lime- 
stone, which  has  been  used  extensively  in  the  public  and  pri- 
vate buildings  of  that  place. 

At  Lockport,  in  Niagara  County,  a  fossil-bearing  calcareous 
dolomite  has  been  quarried  for  many  years  for  general  purposes 
of  construction  in  New  York  and  Rochester.  The  stone  does 
not  take  a  good  surface  and  consequently  does  not  polish 
readily,  but  some  portions  make  quite  showy  mantels,  owing 
to  the  presence  of  red  crinoidal  remains.  According  to  Pro- 
fessor Julien*  this  stone,  as  used  in  New  York  city,  has  not 
proved  durable.  The  fault,  however,  he  regards  in  part  due  to 

*  Report  of  Tenth  Census,  vol.  x.  p.  369. 


STONES  fOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  145 

the  manner  in  which  the  stone  is  used,  about  40  per  cent,  of 
the  blocks  being  set  on  edge. 

North  Carolina. — Limestones  and  dolomites  of  good  quality 
for  building  purposes  occur  in  abundance  in  this  State,  but 
are  not  extensively  quarried  for  lack  of  a  market  or  transpor- 
tation facilities.  Near  New  Berne,  Craven  County,  there 
occurs  a  very  coarse  cellular  shell-stone  of  Eocene  age  that  has 
been  used  for  underpinnings  and  fences,  but  it  is  said  not  to 
weather  well.  Material  of  the  same  nature,  but  much  finer  in 
texture  and  more  compact,  occurs  at  Rocky  Point,  in  Fender 
County,  and  which  has  been  used  in  the  construction  of  break- 
waters and  other  harbor  improvements  at  Wilmington,  in  this 
State.  A  coarse,  dull  red  dolomite  occurs  at  Warm  Springs, 
in  Madison  County,  and  also  light  blue-gray  varieties,  but 
neither  are  worked,  as  there  is  little  demand  for  the  material. 

Ohio. — The  limestones  and  dolomites  of  this  State  are 
almost  altogether  of  a  dull,  uninteresting  color,  and  though  in 
many  cases  durable  and  strong,  are  entirely  unfit  for  any  sort 
of  fine  building  and  ornamental  work.  They  are  therefore 
used  chiefly  for  the  rough  work  of  foundations,  street  paving, 
and  flagging,  and  to  a  very  large  extent  for  making  quicklime. 
In  many  instances  they  have  been  used  locally  for  building 
purposes,  but  their  qualities  are  not  such  as  to  cause  them  to 
be  sought  from  a  distance. 

At  Point  Marblehead,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State, 
dull,  light-colored  compact  dolomites  of  Carboniferous  age 
have  been  quarried  for  making  lime  and  for  building  purposes 
for  the  past  fifty  years.  Many  buildings  in  the  vicinity  have 
been  constructed  from  it,  and  it  has  also  been  largely  used  by 
the  Government  for  light-houses  and  other  structures  along 
the  lake  front.  Of  late  years  its  use  for  building  has  very  con- 
siderably diminished.  Near  Sandusky,  in  Erie  County,  the 
same  formations  have  been  extensively  worked,  not  less  than 


146  STONES  FOR    BUILDING   AND  DECORATION. 


12  acres  in  the  vicinity  having  been  quarried  over  to  a  depth 
of  8  feet.  The  stone  is  of  a  dull,  bluish-gray  color,  and  is  used 
for  building,  flagging,  and  making  lime  ;  about  one  hundred 
and  eighty  houses^  in  the  city  have  been  constructed  from  it. 
Near  Columbus,  in  Franklin  County,  the  Devonian  limestones 
are  extensively  quarried,  and  the  product  has  in  a  few  instances 
been  used  for  building  purposes.  By  far  the  greater  part  of 
the  product  is,  however,  used  as  a  flux  for  iron  and  for  making 
quicklime.  A  dolomite  from  the  same  formations  is  quarried 
for  rough  building  and  lime  burning  at  and  near  Marion,  in 
Marion  County. 

In  Allen,  Miami,  Clarke,  Greene,  Montgomery,  Preble,  and 
several  other  counties  the  dolomites  and  limestones  of  Upper 
Silurian  age  are  extensively  worked,  but  so  far  as  the  author 
can  learn  but  a  small  part  of  the  quarry  product  is  utilized  for 
building.  At  Springfield  the  stone  is  buff  in  color  and  some- 
what porous,  though  it  is  said  to  be  strong  and  durable. 

Near  Greenfield,  Ross  County,  and  Lexington,  Highland 
County,  there  are  extensive  quarries  of  a  bituminous  dolomite, 
which  is  largely  used  in  Cincinnati  for  flagging,  steps,  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  lime.  Specimens  in  the  National  Museum 
from  these  places  show  the  stone  to  vary  from  dark  grayish, 
distinctly  laminated,  to  fine,  compact,  and  homogeneous  of  a 
yellowish  or  buff  color.  The  buff  stone  can  be  cut  to  a  sharp 
edge,  and  acquires  a  good  surface,  but  takes  only  a  dull  polish. 
So  far  as  the  author  has  observed  this  is  one  of  the  finest 
appearing  and  best  working  stones  in  the  State. 

The  Montgomery  County  stone  is  a  magnesian  limestone, 
and  it  is  said  to  have  acquired  a  good  reputation.  It  is  not 
now  used  as  much  as  formerly,  however.  The  stone  quarried 
in  the  other  localities  mentioned  present  so  little  diversity  of 
character  as  to  need  no  special  description.  Those  interested 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  147 

are  referred  to  vol.  X.  of  the  Reports  of  the  Tenth  Census,  and 
to  vol.  v.  of  the  Reports  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Ohio. 

Pennsylvania. — The  lower  Silurian  formations  in  Montgom- 
ery, Lancaster,  and  Chester  Counties,  which  furnish  the  supply  of 
marble  already  referred  to  on  page  100,  furnish  also  large  quan- 
tities of  gray  or  bluish-gray  stone  of  the  same  composition,  but 
owing  to  its  color  and  texture  unsuited  for  any  form  of  orna- 
mental work.  It  is,  however,  extensively  quarried  for  general 
building,  for  foundations  and  bridge  abutments.  Besides  in 
Montgomery  County,  limestone  is  quarried  for  local  use  in 
Easton,  Tuckerton,  and  Reading,  Berks  County,  and  in  Ann- 
ville,  Lebanon  County;  also  near  Harrisburg,  Dauphin  County  ; 
Leaman  Place,  Lancaster  County ;  York,  York  County  ;  Bridge- 
port, Shiremanstown,  and  Carlisle,  Cumberland  County.  The 
stone  from  the  Lancaster  quarries  breaks  with  an  irregular 
fracture;  is  "plucky,"  as  the  stone-cutters  say,  and  is  hence 
hard  to  work.  It  is,  however,  very  durable,  exposure  for  many 
years  having  no  other  apparent  effect  than  that  of  a  slight 
fading  of  the  color. 

The  York  stone  is  very  fine-grained,  compact,  and  of  a 
deep  blue-black  color.  It  takes  a  high  polish,  and  but  for  its 
uneven  texture  might  make  a  fine  marble.  In  Wrightsville,  in 
this  same  county,  a  white  or  bluish  crystalline  granular  stone 
is  quarried,  which  takes  a  fair  polish,  and  which  might  perhaps 
be  used  for  marble. 

At  Chambersburg  and  in  other  parts  of  Franklin  county 
the  stone  is  a  calcareous  dolomite,  dark  in  color,  fine-grained, 
and  very  durable  ;  buildings  which  have  stood  for  a  century 
showing  only  a  slight  fading.  It  is  used  locally  for  rough  build- 
ing and  lime  burning. 

At  various  localities  near  South  Mountain,  a  limestone 
breccia  similar  to  that  of  Frederick,  Maryland,  occurs,  and 
which  perhaps  can  be  made  to  yield  good  stone  for  ornamental 


148  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

work.  At  none  of  the  localities  mentioned  does  the  stone,  so 
far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  possess  such  characters  as  to  make  it 
of  value  for  building  excepting  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
quarries,  where  it  can  be  had  cheaply  owing  to  slight  cost  of 
transportation.  The  output  as  above  indicated  is  used  mainly 
for  foundations,  street  paving,  a  flux  in  iron  furnaces  or  for 
making  quicklime.* 

Tennessee. — A  compact,  finely  fossiliferous,  light  pink 
spotted  limestone  occurs  in  the  vicinity  of  Nashville,  in  this 
State,  and  which  is  quite  extensively  quarried  for  use  in  the 
near  vicinity.  The  stone  is  said  to  be  of  rather  poor  quality, 
but  is  used  on  account  of  its  accessibility.  Near  Chattanoogar 
in  Hamilton  County,  a  magnesian  limestone  of  bluish-black 
color  is  quarried  for  local  use.  The  quarry  is  said  to  be  very 
favorably  located,  and  the  stone  cheap  and  very  durable. 

Light  pink,  finely  fossiliferous,  semi-crystalline  limestones 
occur  at  Columbia,  Maury  County ;  light-colored,  similar-tex- 
tured stones  at  Carter's  Creek;  light,  almost  white,  at  Morris- 
town  ;  red,  compact  fossiliferous  at  Springville ;  and  compact 
drab  and  almost  black  dolomites  near  Charlotte  Pike.  A  fine 
grained,  compact,  and  light-colored  oolitic  stone  occurs  at 
Sherwood  Station,  which  cuts  to  a  sharp,  smooth  edge  and 
seems  a  most  excellent  stone.  So  far  as  the  author  is  aware, 
none  of  these  are  quarried  for  anything  more  than  local  use. 

Texas. — Compact,  fine-grained  Cretaceous  (?)  limestones  of 
excellent  quality  occur  near  San  Saba  in  this  State.  A  portion 
of  these  are  entirely  crystalline  and  acquire  an  excellent  sur- 
face and  polish,  such  as  fits  them  for  interior  decorative  work. 

Light-colored,  fine-grained  limestones  also  occur  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  Austin,  in  Travis  County  ;  and  dark  mottled  varieties 
near  Burnet,  in  Burnet  County. 

^Details  of  quarries  are  to  be  found  in  vol.  x.  Report  Tenth  Census,  pp.  149  to  156. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  149 

Wisconsin. — The  more  thickly  settled  portions  of  this  State 
are  underlain  by  Silurian  rocks  so  disposed  that  there  are  but 
few  regions  where  rock  fit  for  ordinary  purposes  of  construction 
can  not  be  obtained  in  quantities  sufficient  to  supply  the  local 
demand.  Previous  to  1880,  however,  with  a  single  exception, 
no  quarries  had  been  worked  for  export  beyond  the  state  limits, 
and  but  few  that  had  been  worked  for  other  than  local 
markes.  As  a  whole  the  stones  belonging  to -this  class  are 
characterized  by  their  light  colors,  compact  textures,  and  hard- 
ness. Many  of  them  will  take  a  good  polish  and  might  be 
used  for  ornamental  work,  but  that  the  colors  are  dull  and  un- 
interesting. Such  occur  and  are  quarried  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent at  Byron,  Fond  du  Lac,  and  Eden,  in  Fond  du  Lac  County, 
but  although  the  stone  seems  very  durable,  its  hardness  is  such 
that  it  has  not  been  used  for  facings  or  any  kind  of  ornamental 
work.  Coarse  drab  dolomites  are  quarried  for  general  building 
at  Ledyard  and  Kaukauna,  in  Outagamie  County;  at  Neenah 
and  Oshkosh,  Winnebago  County,  and  at  Duck  Creek  Station, 
in  Brown  County.  In  various  parts  of  Waukesha  County  there 
occurs  a  light  drab,  sometimes  almost  white,  dolomite,  which 
though  a  hard  stone  to  cut,  has  been  quite  extensively  used 
and  with  very  good  effect  for  general  building.  At  Eden,  Oak 
Centre  and  Sylvester,  Green  County,  a  similar  stone  occurs, 
which  also  crops  out  in  Calumet  County.  Here  it  is  of  a 
white  mottled  color,  takes  a  good  polish,  and  is  locally  called 
marble. 

Near  Racine  there  occur  beds  of  dolomite,  varying  from 
coarse,  porous,  and  irregularly  bedded  to  a  fine,  compact,  and 
homogeneous  rock,  eminently  adapted  for  fine  building 
material,  though  not  well  suited  for  ornamental  work.  The 
quarries  are  very  extensively  worked.  Other  quarries  in  the 
same  formation  occur  at  Milwaukee,  Cedarburgh,  Grafton,  She- 
boygan,  and  Manitowoc.  The  Milwaukee  quarries  furnish  sev- 


ISO  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

eral  grades  of  building  material,  and  of  almost  any  necessary 
size.  These  are  said  to  be  remarkable  for  the  great  depth  of 
excellent  building  stone  which  their  working  has  developed. 

Numerous  other  quarries  occur  in  Rock,  Dane,  and 
La  Crosse  Counties,  but  which  can  not  be  mentioned  here  for 
lack  of  space. 

(0)"  FOREIGN   LIMESTONES   AND    MARBLES. 

Bermuda. — The  building  stones  of  Bermuda  are  altogether 
calcareous  and  fragmental.  Although  popularly  known  as 
coral  limestones,  they  contain  as  a  rule  fully  as  large  a  propor- 
tion of  shell  as  of  coral  fragments.  Nearly  all  the  quarried 
material  belongs,  according  to  Professor  Rice,*  to  the  drift 
sand-rock  or  ^Eolian  variety,  i.e.,  rocks  made  up  of  fragments 
blown  inland  from  the  beach  and  subsequently  cemented  by 
calcareous  matter  in  a  crystalline  or  subcrystalline  state.  The 
rock  varies  in  color  and  texture  from  chalky  white,  fine- 
grained, and  porous  (somewhat  like  the  French  Caen  stone),  to 
a  darker,  coarser,  but  tough  and  compact  form,  in  which  the 
individual  fragments,  often  of  a  pink  color,  are  one-fourth  of 
an  inch  or  more  in  diameter. 

According  to  the  authority  above  quoted  the  rock  is  usually 
very  soft,  and  is  quarried  out  in  large  blocks  by  means  of  a 
peculiar  long-handled  chisel,  and  afterward  sawn  up  in  sizes 
and  shapes  to  suit  individual  cases.  The  harder  varieties,  as 
found  at  Paynter's  Vale  and  elsewhere,  are,  however,  worked 
like  "  any  ancient  limestone  or  marble." 

Most  of  the  houses  of  Bermuda  are  stated  by  Professor 
Rice  to  be  built  of  this  soft,  friable  variety,  and  even  the  roofs 
are  covered  with  the  same  material  sawn  into  thin  slabs. 

*  Geology  of  Bermuda,  Bull.  25,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  1884. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  I$I 

When  covered  with  a  coating  of  whitewash  the  stone  is  found 
sufficiently  durable  for  ordinary  buildings  in  that  climate,  but 
if  exposed  to  the  rigors  of  a  New  England  winter  it  would 
crumble  rapidly.  The  hard  rock,  such  as  is  found  at  Paynter's 
Vale  and  Ireland  Island,  "  has  been  used  in  the  construction 
of  the  fortifications  and  other  government  works "  on  the 
islands.  "  The  quarry  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  near  Elbow 
Bay,  appears  to  be  in  beach-rock." 

British  Columbia. — Marbles  of  excellent  quality  for  general 
building  and  to  some  extent  for  ornamental  work  occur  on 
Taxada  Island.  The  colors  range  from  gray  to  white,  some- 
times handsomely  mottled.*  White,  gray,  and  pinkish  vari- 
eties are  also  reported  from  White  Cliff  Island  ;  gray,  hand- 
somely variegated  varieties  from  Beaver  Cove,  on  the  east  coast 
of  Vancouver's  Island  ;  gray  and  mottled  varieties  from  White 
Cliff  Island  ;  gray  mottled  from  Nimpish  Lake,  and  a  consid- 
erable variety  from  Home  Lake. 

Canada. — An  outcrop  of  deep  red  marble,  veined  with 
white  calcite  occurs  associated  with  red  shales  and  sandstones 
a  short  distance  east  of  the  Calway  River  in  the  Province  of 
Quebec.  The  bed  is  stated  to  be  from  ten  to  forty  feet  thick, 
and  to  be  exposed  for  a  distance  of  half  a  mile  along  the 
strike. f 

The  beds  of  crystalline  Laurentian  limestone  in  Hastings 
County,  Ontario  Province,  are  capable  of  furnishing  at  various 
points  marbles  of  the  ordinary  granular  type,  varying  in  color 
from  white  through  shades  of  gray  to  nearly  black.  Quarries 
are  worked  in  the  village  of  Madoc,  where  the  limestone  band 
is  some  900  feet  across  with  a  north  and  south  trend,  and  also 


*  Ann.  Rep.  Geol.  Survey  of  Canada,  1887-88. 

f  Ann.  Rep.   Geol.   Survey  of  Canada,    1887-88,  vol.  iii.,  part  2,   pp.   113, 
114.  K. 


152  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

in  the  township  of  Hungerford,  where  there  is  a  bed  some  500 
feet  in  width.  This  last  stone  is  described  as  pure  white  in 
color,  clouded  bluish  and  greenish  in  places,  and  with  bands 
of  pinkish  or  salmon  color  in  other  parts. 

The  town  of  Renfrew  is  also  situated  on  a  wide  band  of 
crystalline  limestone  which  furnishes  a  good  marble  for  general 
building  purposes.  Other  bands  occur  at  Arnprior  and  Echo 
Lake.* 

Africa. — Within  a  very  few  years  there  have  been  reopened 
in  Algeria  and  Tunis  the  famous  quarries  of  Numidian 
marbles,  from  whence  the  ancient  Romans  are  stated  to  have 
obtained  the  celebrated  Giallo  Antico  and  other  stones  for 
the  decoration  of  their  houses  and  temples. 

According  to  Playfair,  the  name  Numidian  is  incorrect,  as 
the  marbles  are  not  found  in  Numidia  proper,  but  in  the  prov- 
inces of  Africa  and  Mauritania.  "  Most  of  the  Giallo  Antico," 
says  this  authority,  "  used  in  Rome  was  obtained  from  Simittu 
Colonia,  the  modern  Chemtou,  in  the  valley  of  Medjerda,  the 
quarries  of  which  are  now  being  worked  by  a  Belgian  company  ; 
but  the  most  remarkable  and  valuable  marbles  are  found  near 
Kleber,  in  the  province  of  Oran,  in  Algeria. 

At  this  point  there  rises  an  imposing  mountain  marked  on 
the  maps  as  Djebel-er-Roos,  or  Mountain  of  the  Capes,  but 
commonly  called  Montague  grise,  from  its  gray,  arid  appear- 
ance. On  the  summit  of  this  is  an  elevated  plateau  of  an  ob- 
long form,  running  in  an  east  and  west  direction.  The  soil, 
where  any  exists,  is  of  a  deep  red  color,  and  there  are  traces 
of  iron  everywhere,  but  more  especially  on  the  western  side. 
The  original  color  of  the  rock  was  creamy  white ;  in  the  ex- 
treme eastern  part  where  the  amount  of  iron  is  small,  it  exists 
very  much  in  its  natural  condition,  only  somewhat  stained  with 


*  Mineral  Resources  of  Ontario.     Report  of  Royal  Commission,  1890. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  153 

iron,  which  communicates  to  it  a  tint  resembling  ivory.  In 
conjunction  with  this  is  a  rose-colored  variety  which  is  capable 
of  being  worked  either  in  large  masses  or  in  the  finest  orna- 
mentation. Here  all  the  rock  is  of  a  uniform  structure  ;  in  the 
west  of  the  plateau,  however,  there  appears  to  have  taken 
place  some  great  earth  movement.  The  whole  of  this  side  of 
the  mountain  has  been  crushed  by  pressure  into  fragments 
varying  in  size  from  large  angular  masses  to  the  merest  dust. 
The  disintegrated  mass  has  subsequently  been  cemented  to- 
gether ;  the  fragments  have  retained  to  a  certain  extent  their 
original  rose  or  yellow  color,  while  the  matrix  has  been  stained 
of  the  deepest  brown  or  red,  owing  to  the  metallic  oxides 
which  have  been  carried  through  the  fissures,  the  whole  thus 
forming  a  beautiful  breccia  of  endless  variety  and  color.  The 
matrix  is  as  hard  as  the  fragments  it  contains,  so  that  the 
stone  takes  a  beautiful  polish  throughout  its  whole  surface. 

Between  these  two  extreme  varieties,  namely,  the  white  and 
rose  marble  on  the  east,  and  the  breccias  on  the  west,  there  are 
many  others,  such  as  the  well-known  yellow  or  giallo  antico, 
a  cippolino  of  almost  indescribable  beauty,  a  variety  called 
paonazza,  from  its  resemblance  to  a  peacock's  plumage,  and  a 
deep  red  species,  somewhat  brecciated,  and  resembling  if  not 
identical  with  the  celebrated  rosso  antico.  All  of  these  owe 
their  color  to  the  iron,  and  the  crushing  force  to  which  they 
have  been  subjected.* 

The  National  collections  contain  a  series  of  these  marbles, 
which  range  in  color  through  many  shades  of  gray,  drab,  siena 
yellow,  and  rose-red,  and  which  are  designated  in  our  markets 
under  the  names  of  jaune,  antique  dore1,  paonazzo  rosso,  jaune 
chiaro  ondate,  jaune  rose,  rose  clair,  breche  sanguin,  and  jaspe 
rouge.  All  are  extremely  compact  and  hard  and  acquire  a  sur- 

*  Geological  Magazine,  Dec.  1885,  p.  562. 


154  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

face  and  polish  of  wonderful  beauty.  The  United  States,  at 
present,  produces  nothing  that  can  compare  with  them  for 
interior  decorations. 

Nummulitic  limestone. — The  celebrated  nummulitic  lime- 
stone of  Eocene  age  from  Northern  Africa,  and  which  was  so 
extensively  used  by  the  Egyptians  in  the  construction  of  their 
pyramids,  is  represented  in  the  collections  of  the  National 
Museum  by  a  7-inch  cube,  the  gift  of  Commander  Gorringe, 
U.  S.  Navy.  This  particular  block  was  formerly  a  portion  of 
the  steps  leading  to  the  obelisk  at  Alexandria,  and  was  brought 
away  at  the  same  time  as  the  obelisk  itself.  Hull  states  that 
this  stone  was  used  in  the  construction  of  Baalbec,  Aleppo, 
and  some  of  the  cities  of  the  Holy  Land.  The  pyramid  of 
Cheops  in  Egypt  is  of  the  same  material. 

England. — The  English  marbles  are  rarely  to  be  met  with 
in  the  American  markets.  The  country  is,  however,  by  no 
means  deficient  in  materials  of  this  nature  well  suited  for 
decorative  purposes,  although  the  white  statuary  varieties  are 
stated  by  Hull  to  be  wholly  lacking.  According  to  this 
authority  beds  belonging  to  the  Devonian  and  Carboniferous 
formations  furnish  a  good  supply  of  colored  marbles.  Beds 
belonging  to  the  lower  Cretaceous  and  upper  Jurassic  (Purbeck 
and  Wealden)  formations  have  also  in  times  past  furnished 
small  blocks  used  mainly  in  the  form  of  slender  shafts  in 
ecclesiastical  building. 

The  National  collections  show  a  series  of  colored  marbles, 
from  quarries  in  Petitor,  Ogwell,  and  Ashburton  in  Devon 
which  compare  very  favorably  with  other  and  better  known 
stones.  They  are  as  a  rule  of  a  very  fine  and  compact  texture, 
highly  fossiliferous,  and  acquire  an  excellent  surface  and  pol- 
ish. The  Petitor  stones  vary  in  color  from  light  yellowish, 
white  and  clouded,  through  pink  and  gray,  light  and  dark  band- 
ed, to  dove,  mottled  with  deep  red.  An  Ashburton  variety 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  155 

known  as  bird's-eye  marble,  is  a  dark  gray  stone  thickly  studded 
with  small  white  fossil  favosites.  The  stone  is  further  vari- 
gated  with  small  white  and  dull  red  veins.  Another  dark 
mottled  variety  is  made  up  of  distorted  fossil  corals  of  vary- 
ing sizes  up  to  two  inches  in  diameter  imbedded  in  a  cement 
so  impregnated  with  iron  oxides  that  a  polished  surface  is 
covered  with  an  irregular  network  of  dull,  deep  red  lines,  form- 
ing a  beautiful  contrast  with  the  gray,  rounded  fossil  forms. 
The  Ogwell  stones  vary  from  light  pinkish,  mottled  with  gray, 
through  dull  red,  and  red  spotted  and  veined  with  gray. 

The  well-known  Bath  stone  or  Bath  oolite  is  a  light,  almost 
white  or  cream-colored  oolitic  limestone  from  quarries  in  the 
Jurassic  formations  which  extend  from  the  coast  of  Dorset,  in 
the  south  of  England,  in  a  northeasterly  direction  through 
Somersetshire,  Gloucestershire,  Oxfordshire,  Northampton- 
shire and  Lincolnshire,  to  Yorkshire. 

In  texture  it  is  distinctly  oolitic,  soft,  and  very  easy  to 
work.  Its  durability  when  exposed  in  the  trying  climate  of 
America  is  a  matter  of  great  doubt.  Nevertheless,  churches 
and  cathedrals  erected  in  the  west  of  England  as  long  ago  as 
the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  fifteenth  centuries,  are  stated  by 
Hull  to  be  still  in  a  state  of  good  preservation. 

As  yet  the  stone  has  been  but  little  used  in  this  country, 
though  a  movement  has  of  late  been  on  foot  for  its  introduc- 
tion. 

Portland  stone. — This  stone,  which  has  been  in  use  in 
England  since  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  is  a 
lightcolored  Jurassic  limestone  from  quarries  on  the  Isle  of 
Portland,  near  Weymouth.  In  composition  it  is  a  nearly  pure 
carbonate  of  lime,  but  its  texture  is  too  uneven  to  recommend 
it  for  other  than  massive  structures.  It  was  used  in  the 
construction  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  (London),  and  many 
churches  erected  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne, 


156  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


Ireland. — The  so-called  "  Irish-black  "  is  one  of  the  best 
known  of  the  black  marbles  and  has  in  times  past  been  exten- 
sively imported  into  this  country.  The  Angliham  and  Men- 
lough  quarries  from  whence  the  stone  is  taken  are  situated 
about  three  miles  north  of  Galway.  As  long  ago  as  1868  there 
were  40  feet  of  clearing  over  the  beds,  and  at  the  present  date 
the  amount  of  clearing  and  pumping  have  greatly  increased, 
thereby  adding  much  to  the  cost  of  the  stone.  In  the  Angli- 
ham quarry  there  were  three  beds  of  marble,  one  9  inches 
thick:  one  12  inches  thick  :  and  one  14  inches  thick.  The  9 
inch  bed  furnished  the  purest  stone:  the  12  inch  bed  was 
known  as  the  London  bed,  the  product  being  held  wholly  for 
the  London  market,  preference  being  given  to  it  on  account  of 
its  capability  of  being  cut  most  economically.  The  historic 
Kilkenny  marble  is  from  the  quarries  lying  close  to  the  river, 
near  Archers  Grove,  about  half  a  mile  south  east  of  the  town 
of  Kilkenny.  The  stone  occurs  in  three  varieties  :  shelly 
black,  pure  black  and  dark  gray.  The  shelly  black  is  the  best 
known  variety,  the  black  background  thickly  studded  with 
white  shells  giving  it  a  world  wide  reputation.  Other  black 
marbles  are  found  in  the  town  of  Carlow,  in  Donegal,  Ferm- 
auagh,  Kerry,  Limerick,  Mayo,  Monaghan,  Sligo,  Tipperary 
and  Waterford.  According  to  G.  H.  Kinahan,  who  is  author- 
ity for  the  above,  *  the  Irish  black  marbles  were  at  one  time  in 
great  request,  quarries  in  various  counties  being  worked  in 
great  measure  for  exportation  to  England  and  elsewhere.  The 
pure  black  varieties  were  used  mainly  for  monumental  pur- 
poses. Although  in  late  years  the  best  "  blacks  "  were  most 
in  requisition,  yet  the  black  mottled  or  white  spotted,  like  the 
famous  Kilkenny  stone,  were  much  sought,  as  were  also  the 

*  Economic  Geology  of  Ireland.     Journal  Royal  Geological  Society  of  Ire- 
land, vol.  viu.  (new  series),  part  n.  1886-87,  p.  137. 


STOiVES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  1 57 

inferior  varieties,  used  mainly  for  tombstones.  At  present  the 
trade  is  very  low,  only  the  best  black  varieties  being  now  in 
demand. 

EUROPE. 

Belgium. — This  country  is  stated  by  Violet  *  to  be  excep- 
tionally rich  in  colored  marbles,  though  white  varieties  are 
entirely  wanting.  They  are  mostly  of  a  somber  or  dull  color, 
and,  like  the  marbles  of  Northern  France,  belong,  according  to 
Delesse,  f  to  the  Carboniferous  and  Devonian  formations. 
The  principal  varieties  now  quarried  for  exportation,  as  repre- 
sented in  the  collections  of  the  National  Museum,  are  the 
black  of  St.  Anne,  from  Biesme,  province  of  Namur,  the  blue 
from  Couillet,  near  Charleroi,  province  of  Hainaut,  the  reds 
from  Cerfontaine  and  Merlemont,  near  Philippeville,  province 
of  Namur,  and  the  well-known  "  Belgian  black  "  from  quarries 
in  Golzines,  and  the  environs  of  Dinant,  also  in  the  province  of 
Namur.;};  All  of  these  are  very  fine  grained  and  compact, 
admitting  of  smooth  surfaces  and  high  polish. 

The  St.  Anne  marble  is  of  a  deep  blue-black  color  with 
many  short  and  interrupted  veins  of  white  ;  those  of  Couillet 
are  much  lighter  in  color  and  with  more  white  ;  some  of  the 
varieties  are  breccias  composed  of  fragments  of  compact  blue- 
gray  limestone  imbedded  in  a  white  Crystalline  matrix.  The 
red  marbles  of  Cerfontaine  and  Merlemont  are  known  as  rouge 
griotte,  rouge  griotte  fleure1^  rouge  imperial  and  rouge  royal.  All 

*  Les  marbres,  p.  44. 

f  Materiaux  de  construction,  p.  194. 

\  Violet  gives  the  full  list  of  Belgian  marbles  as  follows:  "  Le  marbre 
Saint  Anne,  le  rouge  royal,  le  rouge  imperial,  la  griotte  de  Flandre,  le  griotte 
fleuree,  le  granite  beige,  le  bleu  beige,  la  Florence  beige,  bizantin  beige,  bleu 
antique,  le  grand  antique,  le  petit  antique,  et  les  marbres  noirs  de  Golzinnes  et 
de  Dinant." 


158  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

are  dull  red,  of  light  and  dark  shades,  variously  spotted,  fleck- 
ed, and  veined  with  white  and  gray ;  none  of  them  are  as  brill- 
iant in  color  as  the  French  griottes.  The  variety  rouge  royalis 
very  light,  and  somewhat  resembles  certain  varieties  of  the 
Tennessee  marbles,  but  is  inferior.  The  well-known  Belgian 
black  is  of  a  deep  black  color,  hard,  and  difficult  to  work,  but 
takes  a  high  polish,  and  is  considered  the  best  of  its  kind  now 
in  the  market. 

France  :  Griotte,  or  French  Red  Marble. — This  beautiful 
stone  takes  its  name,  according  to  Violet,*  from  the  griotte 
cherry,  owing  to  its  brilliant  red  color.  When,  as  frequently 
happens,  the  uniform  redness  is  broken  by  small  white  spots, 
it  is  called  "  bird's-eye  griotte  "  (griotte  ceil  de perdrix}.  Some 
varieties  are  traversed  by  white  veins,  but  these  are  regarded 
as  defects  and  are  avoided  in  quarrying.  The  stone  is  found 
in  several  localities  in  the  French  Pyrenees,  notably  in  the 
valley  of  the  Barousse,  of  the  Pique,  at  the  bridge  of  the 
Taoulo,  and  in  the  environs  of  Prades.  It  is  used  for  all  man- 
ner of  interior  decorative  work  in  France,  and  is  exported  to  a 
very  considerable  extent  to  this  country.  This  is  by  all  odds 
the  most  brilliant  in  color  of  any  marble  of  which  the  author 
has  knowledge.  In  the  small  slabs  usually  seen  in  soda  foun- 
tains and  counters  it  appears  homogeneous  and  free  from 
flaws.  As  displayed  in  the  halls  of  the  capital  building  at 
Albany,  New  York,  however,  it  is  full  of  flaws  and  has  been  so 
extensively  "  filled  "  as  to  give  the  whole  surface  a  gummy 
appearance,  in  striking  contrast  with  that  of  the  Tennessee 
marble  with  which  it  is  associated.  The  price  in  France  as 
given  by  Violet  is  from  400  to  500  francs  per  cubic  metre,  or 
about  $2.75  to  $3.50  per  cubic  foot,  according  to  quality. 

Another  marble  of  a  brilliant  scarlet  color,  blotched  with 
white  and  known  as  Languedoc  marble  or  French  red,  is  stated 
*  Les  Marbres,  etc.  Rapports  sur  L'Exposition  Universelle,  1878,  xxvm.  p.  15. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  159 

by  Violet  to  occur  at  various  points  in  the  Pyrenees,  but  in 
masses  of  exceptional  beauty  and  compactness  at  Montague 
Noire  (Black  Mountain),  where  it  has  been  quarried  since  the 
sixteenth  century.  It  is  obtainable  here  in  blocks  of  consider- 
able size,  which  bring  in  the  market  of  Carcassone  prices  vary- 
ing from  250  to  350  francs  per  cubic  metre,  or,  roughly  speak- 
ing, from  $1.75  to  $2.20  per  cubic  foot.  Other  French  marbles, 
though  which  are  but  little  used  in  this  country,  are  the  rose 
marble  from  Caunes,  the  vert-moulin,  also  called griotte  campan, 
the  campan  vert,  or  the  campan  melange.  The  wrongly  so-called 
Italian  griotte  is,  according  to  Chateau,  obtained  from  quarries 
at  La  Motte  de  Felines  d'Hautpoul,  Department  of  Herault. 
Violet  states  that  this  name  was  given  it  simply  that  it  might 
command  a  higher  price. 

Caen  stone. — This  is  one  of  the  most  noted  limestones  of 
modern  history.  It  is  a  soft,  fine-grained  stone,  very  light 
colored,  and  admirably  adapted  for  carved  work,  but  so  absorb- 
ent as  to  be  entirely  unfitted  for  outdoor  work  in  such  a  climate 
as  that  of  the  United  States.  Egleston*  states  that  in  the 
climate  of  New  York  City  the  stone  does  not  endure  longer 
than  ten  years  unless  protected  by  paint. 

The  stone  takes  its  name  from  Caen,  in  Normandy,  where 
the  principal  quarries  are  situated.  It  was  probably  introduced 
into  Great  Britain  soon  after  the  Norman  conquest,  where  it 
was  largely  used  in  cathedrals  and  other  buildings  down  to  the 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  cathedral  of  Canterbury 
and  Westminster  Abbey  are  of  this  stone. 

Brocatelle. — This  is  a  very  beautiful  marble  and  much  used 
for  mantels  and  other  interior  decorations.  The  body  of  the 
stone  is  very  fine  and  compact,  and  of  a  light  yellow  color, 
traversed  by  irregular  veins  and  blotches  of  dull  red.  It  is 


*  Transaction  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  XV.     1886. 


160  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

further  variegated  by  patches  or  nodules  of  white  crystalline 
calcite.  It  takes  an  excellent  polish  and  requires  less  filling 
than  many  marbles.  Its  source  is  stated  by  Violet  to  be  Jura, 
in  southern  France.  The  stone  is  difficult  of  extraction  and 
brings  a  high  price. 

The  name  brocatelle  is  stated  by  Newberry  to  signify  a 
coarse  kind  of  brocade  used  for  tapestry. 

The  National  collections  show  a  variety  of  coarsely  mottled 
white,  gray  and  almost  black  stones  of  fine  grain  and  susceptible 
of  a  high  polish,  from  Scherneck,  near  St.  Die,  and  from  Fra- 
mont  in  the  Department  of  Vosges  ;  also  a  stone  of  similar 
structure  but  with  a  chocolate  red  base  from  the  same  locality.  A 
compact  black  stone  thickly  studded  with  small  white  asterisks  is 
found  in  the  valley  of  the  Hogneau.  A  coarse  conglomerate 
marble  taking  a  fair  surface  and  polish,  and  composed  of  dull 
pink,  yellowish  and  drab  pebbles  in  a  pinkish  base,  is  found  in 
the  valley  of  Tholonet,  near  Aix,  and  is  known  commercially 
as  Breche  d*  A  let. 

Germany. — The  two  principal  marbles  now  imported  from 
this  country  are  known  commercially  as  Formosa  and  Bougard. 
Both  are  very  beautiful  stones,  ranking  among  the  finest  now 
in  general  use.  The  first  named  is  dark  gray  and  white  mot- 
tled and  blotched  with  red  ;  it  is  slightly  fossiliferous.  The 
Bougard  has  about  the  same  colors,  but  is  lighter  and  the  tints 
are  more  obscure  They  are  said  to  come  from  Nassau. 

Austria. — The  marbles  of  Austria  stand  in  strong  contrast 
with  those  of  the  United  States,  in  that  with  few  exceptions 
they  have  undergone  less  metamorphism,  and  are,  therefore,  of 
an  extremely  fine  and  compact,  microcrystalline  texture  and 
often  highly  fossiliferous.  Stones  of  this  type  of  structure 
and  varying  from  dark  chocolate,  through  creamy  white,  pink- 
ish, dull  red  and  yellowish  variegated,  dark  siena  yellow  or 
drab,  and  often  beautifully  brecciated,  occur  in  the  Jurassic 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AMD  DECORATION.  l6l 

formations  in  the  vicinity  of  Castione,  in  the  Tyrol.  Drab  and 
white  mottled  fossiliferous  stones  are  also  found  in  the  Lias 
formations  of  this  same  district.  Dark  chocolate  red  and 
variegated,  and  gray  and  black  highly  fossiliferous  stones  are 
found  near  Saltzburg,  and  also  pure  white  crystalline  forms 
resembling  those  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut.  By  far 
the  most  beautiful  of  the  above  are  the  pink,  yellowish,  and 
white  brecciated  varieties  from  Castione. 

Many  of  these  stones  are  hard  and  plucky,  but  can  be 
worked  down  to  a  smooth  surface  and  acquire  a  high  polish 
such  as  is  obtainable  only  on  stones  of  such  dense  and  compact 
structure.  It  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  similar  stones  are  not 
as  yet  to  be  found  on  the  markets  of  the  United  States. 

Chalky  white,  buff  and  gray  limestones  suitable  for  build- 
ing and  carved  work,  but  which  do  not  polish,  are  obtained 
from  the  Miocene  formations  of  Margarethen,  Oszlopp,  Man- 
nersdorfer,  Hundsheimer  and  other  towns  in  Lower  Austria. 
The  so-called  lumachelle  marble  is  a  fossiliferous  limestone  in 
which  the  shells  still  retain  their  nacre,  or  pearly  lining,  and 
which  when  polished  gives  off  in  spots  a  brilliant  iridescent 
lustre  with  rainbow  tints  ;  the  finer  varieties  being  seemingly 
set  with  opals.  It  is  a  beautiful  stone  for  inlaid  work  and 
elaborate  ornamentation,  but  is  usually  found  only  in  small 
slabs.  A  variety  quite  commonly  seen  in  mineral  cabinets  is 
of  a  dark  grayish-brown  color  and  with  occasional  brilliantly 
iridescent  spots  and  streaks  like  those  of  the  fire  opal.  It  is 
brought  from  Bleiberg  and  Hall  in  the  Tyrol. 

Spain  and  Portugal. — These  countries  possess  a  great 
amount  and  variety  of  stone  suitable  for  building  and  orna- 
mental work,  but,  so  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  only  a  few  of 
the  marbles  and  limestones  are  exported  to  this  country,  and 
need  be  referred  to  here. 

There  is  stated  to  be  a  zone  of  crystalline  marbles  of  white, 


1 62  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

yellow,  and  flesh  color,  which  extends  through  the  provinces  of 
Estremoz,  Borba,  and  Villa  Vic.osa  ;  a  black  variety  with  white 
veins  also  occurs  at  Monte  Claros.  These  are  all  susceptible 
of  a  good  polish,  and  blocks  of  large  size  can  be  obtained. 
The  beds  belong  to  the  Laurentian  formations.  In  Vianna, 
Alrito,  Portel,  and  the  mountains  of  Ficalho  other  marbles  are 
found  of  the  same  general  character.  The  rocks  of  the 
Jurassic  and  Cretaceous  formations  also  furnish  a  large  quan- 
tity of  material  for  building  and  ornamental  use.  This  is 
especially  the  case  at  Coimbra,  Figueira  da  Foz,  Cintra,  and 
Pero  Pinheiro.  At  Cintra  the  limestones  have  been  meta- 
morphosed by  the  adjoining  granites,  while  those  of  Pero 
Pinheiro  were  likewise  metamorphosed  by  the  volcanic  rocks 
of  the  suburbs  of  Lisbon.* 

One  of  the  finest  of  the  above-mentioned  marbles,  and  one 
which  is  much  used  in  the  United  States,  is  the  yellow,  from 
Estremoz.  This  is  known  commercially  as  Lisbon  marble.  In 
color  and  texture  it  is  almost  identical  with  the  celebrated 
Italian  Siena,  with  which  it  favorably  compares.  A  peculiar 
stone  from  this  same  locality  is  white  with  streaks  and  blotches 
of  a  blood-red  color.  It  is  more  peculiar  than  beautiful.  The 
marbles  of  Pero  Pinheiro  are  of  mottled  white  and  pink — 
almost  red — color,  fine  grained  and  compact.  They  are  said 
to  have  been  extensively  used  in  Lisbon,  where  they  have 
proved  very  durable.  Other  marbles  that  perhaps  need 
especial  mention  are  the  breccias  from  Serra  de  Arrabida  and 
Chodes,  Saragossa  Province.  The  first  named  is  composed 
of  rounded  and  angular  pebbles  of  a  gray,  drab,  black,  and  red 
color,  embedded  in  a  dull  red  paste.  In  a  general  way  it  re- 
sembles the  breccia  from  Montgomery  County,  Maryland,  but 


*  Portuguese  Special  Catalogue,  Departments,  i.,  n.,  in. ,  iv.,  and  v. ;  In- 
ternational Exhibit,  1876,  pp.  29,  30. 


S7VNES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  163 

has  less  beauty.  The  Chodes  stone  is  composed  of  very  angu- 
lar fragments,  of  a  black  color,  in  a  reddish  brown  paste.  The 
proportion  of  paste  to  the  fragments  is  very  large  and  much 
filling  is  necessary  in  polishing.  Fine,  compact  marbles  of 
dull  reddish  hues,  often  veined  with  drab,  occur  in  Pannella 
Province.  Others  that  may  be  mentioned  are  the  red  and 
yellow  mottled  marbles  of  Murcia  Province,  the  black  of 
Alicante  Province,  and  the  black  white-veined  breccias  of 
Madrid.  A  fine  translucent  alabaster  is  also  included  among 
the  productions  of  Saragossa  Province. 

A  very  full  series  of  these  stones  was  exhibited  at  the  Cen- 
tennial Exposition  at  Philadelphia  in  1876,  and  from  there 
transferred  to  the  National  Museum  at  Washington. 

Italy. — The  quarries  of  the  Apennines  in  northern  Italy, 
near  Carrara,  Massa,  and  Serravezza,  furnish  marbles  of  a  great 
variety  of  colors  of  the  finest  qualities  and  in  apparently  inex- 
haustible quantities.  To  give  a  full  description  of  these  quar- 
ries and  their  various  products  would  be  to  transcend  the  limits 
of  this  work.  I  shall  therefore  confine  myself  to  a  brief 
description  of  only  those  stones  which  are  imported  to  any 
extent  into  this  country. 

White  statuary  marble. — This  is  a  fine  grained  saccharoidal 
pure  white  stone,  without  specks  or  flaws.  On  a  polished  sur- 
face it  has  a  peculiar  soft,  almost  waxy  appearance,  entirely 
different  from  the  dead  whiteness  of  the  Vermont  statuary 
marbles,  to  which  it  is  considered  greatly  superior.  It  is 
brought  principally  from  the  Poggio  Silvestro  and  Betogli 
quarries,  that  from  the  first  named  locality  being  considered 
the  best.  The  price  of  the  stone  in  Italy  varies  from  15  to  40 
lires  per  cubic  foot  in  blocks  of  sufficient  size  for  an  ordinary 
statue  5  feet  ifi  height. 

Ordinary  white  or  block  marble.— This  is  usually  white  in 
color,  though  sometimes  faintly  bluish  and  veined.  It  is 


164  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


largely  imported  into  this  country,  and  used  for  monumental 
work.  The  variety  from  the  Canal  Bianco  quarries  is  white, 
with  faint  bluish  lines  ;  that  from  Gioja  quarries  is  fine-grained, 
and  uniformly  white  and  somewhat  translucent,  sometimes 
resembling  gypsum  on  a  polished  surface.  The  variety  from 
the  Ravaccione  quarries  is  faintly  water-blue,  while  that  from 
the  Tantiscritti  quarries  is  of  similar  color,  but  traversed  by 
fine,  dark-bluish  veins.  These  stones  sell  for  from  4  to  10  lires 
per  cubic  foot,  in  blocks  containing  not  over  20  cubic  feet  each. 

The  veined  marbles  from  the  Vara  and  Gioja  quarries  are 
of  a  white  color,  but  often  blotched  with  darker  hues,  and 
traversed  by  a  coarse  irregular  net-work  of  faintly  bluish  lines. 
The  Bardiglio  marbles  of  the  ordinary  type  from  the  Para  and 
Gioja  quarries  are  of  a  water-blue  color,  blotched  irregularly 
with  white,  and  far  inferior  in  point  of  beauty  to  the  justly 
famed  Bardiglio  veined  marbles  from  the  Seravezza  quarries. 
These  are  of  a  light-blue  color,  traversed  by  an  irregular  net- 
work of  fine  dark-blue  lines,  intersecting  one  another  at  acute 
angles.  This  stone  is  used  very  extensively  in  soda-water 
fountains,  counters,  and  for  panellings. 

The  red  mixed  marble  from  quarries  at  Levante  is  also 
much  sought,  but  works  with  difficulty  and  requires  much  fill- 
ing. It  is  properly  a  breccia,  composed  of  irregular  whitish 
and  red  fragments  embedded  in  a  reddish  paste.  It  does  not 
take  a  high  polish,  nor  are  its  colors  brilliant.  The  so-called 
Pannazo  marbles,  from  the  Miseglia,  Pescina,  and  Bocca  del 
Frobbi  quarries,  are  all  white  or  whitish,  and  traversed  by  a 
very  coarse  net-work  of  black  or  blue-black  veins. 

The  yellow  or  Siena  marbles  are,  next  to  the  white  statuary, 
probably  the  most  sought  and  widely  known  of  Italian  marbles. 
Like  the  majority  of  foreign  colored  marbles,  they  are  exceed- 
ingly fine-grained  and  compact  in  texture,  and  take  a  high 
lustrous  polish.  The  prevailing  color  is  bright  yellow,  though 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  165 

often  blotched  with  slight  purplish  or  violet  shades.  When 
these  darker  veins  or  blotches  prevail  to  a  considerable  extent 
the  stone  is  called  Brocatelle.  The  most  beautiful  variety  of 
the  Siena  marble  is  obtained,  according  to  Delesse,  from  Monte 
Arenti,  in  Montagnola.  It  is  of  a  uniform  yellow  color,  but 
blocks  of  large  size  can  be  obtained  only  rarely,  and  these 
often  bring  a  price  as  high  as  $6  per  cubic  foot.  The  Broca- 
telle variety  from  the  same  locality  is  worth  only  about  two- 
thirds  this  sum. 

The  Portor  or  black  and  gold  marble. — This  is,  according 
to  Delesse,  a  black  silicious  limestone,  traversed  by  yellowish, 
reddish,  or  brown  veins  of  carbonate  of  iron.  It  is  brought 
chiefly  from  the  Isle  of  Palmaria,  in  the  Gulf  of  Spezia,  and 
from  Porto  Venere.  A  small  amount  is  also  produced  at 
Carrara  and  Serravezza.  Blocks  of  this  stone  in  the  National 
Museum  show  a  good  surface  and  high  polish.  It  is  a  beauti- 
ful stone,  and  the  name  black  and  gold  well  describes  it.  The 
Portor  marble,  from  the  Monte  d'Arma  quarries,  is  a  breccia 
of  fragments  of  black  limestone  with  a  yellowish  cement. 
This  is  inclined  to  break  away  in  the  process  of  dressing,  thus 
rendering  the  production  of  a  perfect  surface  impossible  with- 
out much  filling. 

Black  marble. — A  fair  variety  of  this  material  is  brought 
from  the  Colonnata  quarries.  The  stone  is  not  as  dark  as  the 
Belgian  black,  nor  does  it  admit  of  so  high  a  polish. 

Breccia  marble. — The  breccia  marbles  from  Gragnana  and 
Serravezza  I  have  never  seen  in  use  in  this  country,  though 
they  are  stated  to  be  imported  to  a  slight  extent.  The  first- 
named  consists  of  small  bluish-white  fragments  cemented 
closely  by  a  chalk-red  cement,  while  the  second  variety  has 
both  white  and  red  fragments  similarly  cemented. 

The  yellow  marbles  of  Verona  and  Gragnana  are  quite  dif- 
ferent in  appearance  from  those  of  Siena,  being  rather  of  a 


166  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

brownish  hue,  and  taking  only  a  dull  polish.  They  are  com- 
pact rocks,  excellently  adapted  for  decorative  work.  The  so 
called  red  marble  from  the  Castel  Poggio  quarries  is  rather  a 
chocolate  color,  dull  in  polish,  but  pleasing  to  the  eye. 

Ruin  marble. — This  is  a  very  compact  yellowish  or  drab 
limestone,  the  beds  of  which  appear  to  have  been  fractured  in 
every  conceivable  direction  by  geological  agencies,  after  which 
the  resultant  fragments  have  become  recemented  by  a  calcare- 
ous or  ferruginous  cement.  The  rock  is  therefore  really  a 
breccia,  although  the  proportional  amount  of  cement  is  very 
small,  and  the  actual  displacement  of  the  various  particles  but 
slight.  When  cut  and  polished  the  slabs  have  somewhat  the 
appearance  of  mosaics,  representing  the  ruins  of  ancient  castles 
or  other  structures.  Hence  the  name  of  "  ruin  marble."  The 
locality  as  given  by  Delesse,  is  the  bridge  of  Rignano,  Val  de 
Sieve,  in  the  environs  of  Florence,  Italy. 

Greece. — The  celebrated  Parian  marble  of  the  ancients  was 
brought  from  Pares,  a  small  island  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago. 
It  is  stated  *  that  the  southern  part  only  of  the  island  consists 
of  crystalline  limestone,  the  pure  white  statuary  marble  form- 
ing beds  of  from  five  to  fifteen  feet  in  thickness  intercalated 
with  other  layers  of  coarser  texture  and  traversed  by  dark 
veins,  the  coloring  matter  being  oxides  of  iron  and  manganese. 
It  is  further  stated  that  the  marble  beds  are  much  disturbed 
and  folded,  and  often  dip  at  high  angles.  The  ancients  avoided 
the  stone  lying  near  the  axis  of  this  elevation,  as  being  of 
poorer  quality  than  that  in  other  parts.  A  recently  formed 
Greek  company  instead  of  profiting  by  this  experience 
attempted  quarrying  in  these  parts,  but  the  poor  character  of 
the  material  obtained  soon  discredited  the  marble  in  the  mar- 
ket, and  the  company  failed  as  a  consequence  after  expending 
some  $800,000  in  their  plant. 

*  Robert  Swan  in  Repori  British  Association,  Sept.,  1889. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  1 67 


SOME   MINOR   ORNAMENTAL   STONES. 

It  may  be  well  to  mention  here,  briefly,  a  few  of  the  rarer 
stones  used  for  ornamental  purposes,  particularly  for  inlaid  and 
finely  decorative  work.  Such  stones  as  are  used  merely  as 
gems  will  not  be  included,  since  they  are  sufficiently  well  de- 
scribed in  other  available  treastises.  (See  bibliography,  p.  428). 

Agahnatolite. — This  is  a  somewhat  general  name  given  to 
a  not  well  defined  class  of  rocks  of  varying  composition  but 
having  in  common  a  fine  compact  texture  free  from  grit,  a  ser- 
pentinous  or  talcose  look  and  feel,  and  which  owing  to  their 
physical  rather  than  chemical  properties  are  readily  carved  into 
a  variety  of  forms.  The  more  important  substances  here  in- 
cluded are  the  minerals  pyrophyllite  and  pinite.  The  first  is 
an  aluminous  bisilicate  of  the  composition,  silica  64.82$,  alum- 
ina 24.48,  water  5.25$,  with  traces  of  iron,  magnesia  and  lime. 
A  nearly  white  schistose  rock  of  this  nature  occurs  in  the  Deep 
River  region,  and  at  Carbonton,  Moore  County,  North  Caro- 
lina, but  is  utilized  only  as  a  white  earth  and  for  slate  pencils. 
Near  Washington  in  Wilkes  County,  Georgia,  is  a  deep  lus- 
trous green  and  white  variety  of  the  same  mineral,  and  which 
though  soft  could  be  used  advantageously  in  certain  forms  of 
ornamentation.  On  a  polished  surface  the  stone  shows  a  gray 
groundmass  mottled  with  irregular  streaks  and  blotches  of  pea 
green  and  occasional  shreds  of  silvery  white  mica. 

Pinite  is,  according  to  Dana,  a  hydrous  alkaline  silicate,  con- 
taining silica  46$,  alumina  30$,  potash  io#,  water  6$.  Rocks 
of  this  general  class  are  much  used  in  China,  Corea  and  Japan 
for  making  a  variety  of  objects  including  ornamental  dishes, 
miniature  pagodas,  and  grotesque  images.  The  name  agal- 
matolite,  according  to  the  the  above  authority,  being  from 
the  Greek  ayaXpa,  an  image,  and  pagodite  from  pagoda,  on 


1 68  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

account  of  the  use  to  which  the  stone  is  put.  A  common  color 
of  the  Chinese  rock  is  faint  greenish  mottled  with  red.  A  sim- 
ilar stone  from  the  State  of  Sonora,  Mexico,  is  exhibited  in  the 
collections  of  the  National  Museum,  but  there  are  no  records 
to  show  that  it  has  here  ever  been  put  to  any  use. 

Cat  Unite,  or  Indian  Pipestone. — Although  frequently  found 
in  the  collections  of  amateur  mineralogists  this  substance  can- 
not be  considered  a  true  mineral,  but  as  shown  by  analyses  is 
rather  an  indurated  clay  of  quite  variable  composition.  The 
usual  color  is  a  deep  though  dull  red,  often  beautifully  flecked 
with  small  yellowish  dots.  The  stone  is  soft  enough  to  be 
readily  cut  with  a  knife,  but  is  sufficiently  firm  and  compact  to 
retain  the  sharpest  edges  and  lines  that  may  be  carved  upon  it. 
There  is,  in  fact,  an  entire  absence  of  granulation  and  its  texture 
is  as  fine  and  close  as  that  of  the  Bavarian  lithographic  stone. 

The  material  first  derived  its  notoriety  from  the  fact  that 
the  Sioux  Indians  utilized  it  for  the  manufacture  of  their  pipes 
and  various  other  articles,  and  at  the  present  time  these  same 
people  living  in  the  vicinity  of  Flandreau,  Dakota,  derive  a 
considerable  income  from  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  these 
articles.  The  substance  is  found  in  various  places  in  Minne- 
sota and  Wisconsin,  but  the  principal  quarry,  if  such  it  can  be 
called,  is  situated  a  little  north  of  what  is  now  Pipestone  City, 
in  Pipestone  County,  Minnesota.  The  country  is  low  prairie 
land,  and  the  stone  occurs  as  a  layer  of  only  about  eighteen 
inches  thickness,  interstratified  with  a  hard,  tough  quartzite.  It 
can  therefore  be  obtained  in  pieces  of  only  very  moderate 
dimensions,  and  this  too  at  a  very  considerable  outlay  of  time 
and  labor.* 

The  color  and  textural  qualities  of  the  stone  are  such  that 

*See  Geology  of  Minnesota,  vol.  n. ;  also  American  Journal  Science,  1867, 
p.  15,  and  American  Naturalist,  1868-69. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  169 

it  might,  in  proper  combinations,  be  used  to  excellent  advan- 
tage in  interior  decorative  work. 

On  the  Sweetwater  branch  of  the  Ruby  River  south-west 
From  Virginia  City,  in  Madison  County,  Montana,  there 
occurs  a  peculiar  rock,  in  many  respects  similar  to  that  just 
described. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  origin  of  the  rock  it  now  has 
the  aspect  of  an  indurated  clay.  Its  prevailing  colors  are  gray, 
drab,  yellow  and  red  sometimes  pinkish,  or  bluish,  the  colors 
being  always  arranged  in  concentric  zones  varying  from  the 
dimensions  of  a  mere  line  to  an  inch  or  more  in  width.  The 
rock  occurs  only  in  small  jointed  blocks,  and  the  zonal  banding 
is  in  all  cases  approximately  parallel  to  the  outline  of  the 
blocks,  being  a  product  of  the  oxidation  of  the  ferruginous 
constituent  of  the  rock. 

In  texture  the  rock  is  as  smooth,  fine  and  homogeneous  as 
is  the  catlinite  above  described.  It  hence  is  susceptible  of 
a  fine  surface  and  good  polish.  In  proper  combination  the 
stone  could  be  used  to  good  advantage  for  interior  decorations. 
At  present  the  nearest  railroad  shipping  point  is  at  Dillon  some 
twenty-five  miles  away. 

Fossil  Coral. — The  masses  of  fossil  acervularia  from  the 
Devonian  limestones  of  Iowa  furnish  very  beautiful  material 
for  small  ornaments,  as  already  described  on  p.  92. 

Labradorite. — The  name  Labradorite  is  given  to  a  mineral 
belonging  to  the  feldspar  group,  and  which  owes  its  claims 
to  recognition  as  an  ornamental  stone  to  a  beautiful 
and  sometimes  actually  gorgeous  iridescence  in  every  shade 
of  blue,  green  and  yellow.  The  stone  is  of  a  gray  color, 
quite  hard,  and  as  a  rule  the  iridescent  portions  occur  only 
in  small  areas.  As  moreover  the  polished  surface  needs  be 
turned  at  various  angles  with  the  light  in  order  to  bring  out 
its  full  beauty,  it  is  not  well  suited  for  stationary  objects,  but 


1 70  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


rather  for  vases  and  other  small  ornaments.  The  present  sup- 
ply comes  mainly  from  Labrador  and  Russia.  It  is  the  pres- 
ence of  this  feldspar  that  gives  rise  to  the  bluish  iridesence 
sometimes  seen  on  the  so-called  Au  Sable  granite,  quarried  at1 
Keeseville,  New  York. 

Lapis-Lazuli. — This  is  a  hard,  tough  and  compact  rock  of 
a  rich,  azure-blue  color,  and  vitreous  lustre.  It  is  not  a  homo- 
geneous mineral,  but  an  intimate  mixture  of  granular  calcite, 
ekebergite  and  a  blue  mineral,  the  exact  chemical  nature  of 
which  has  not  been  fully  made  out.  The  chemical  composi- 
tion, as  given  by  Dana,  shows  it  to  be  composed  mainly  of  silica 
and  alumina,  with  smaller  percentages  of  lime,  soda,  iron,  and 
sulphur. 

The  stone  is  much  esteemed  for  highly  ornamental  inlaid 
work,  but  is  very  expensive,  so  that  as  a  rule  it  is  used  only  in 
the  form  of  a  thin  veneering. 

The  stone  occurs  in  granular  limestone  and  syenitic  rocks 
according  to  Dana.  The  commercial  supply  is  brought  from 
Persia,  Siberia  and  China. 

Malachite  and  Azurite. — These  are  the  names  given  to  the 
green  and  blue  carbonates  of  copper,  and  which  occur  at  times 
in  sufficient  abundance  and  compactness  of  texture  to  permit 
of  their  being  utilized  for  table  tops,  vases  and  other  small 
ornaments.  Both  forms  of  the  carbonate  are  common  as  ores 
of  copper,  though  it  is  but  rarely  that  they  occur  in  such 
abundance  as  to  be  of  value  for  decorative  purposes. 

The  most  noted  source  of  malachite  is  Nijni  Tagilsk,  in  the 
Russian  Urals.  The  mineral  occurs  in  stalagmitic  masses  of  a 
beautiful  banded  structure  and  of  various  shades  of  green. 
Solid  blocks  of  a  cubic  yard  in  dimensions  are  stated  to  have 
been  obtained  here. 

Another  source  is  the  Burra  Burra  Mine,  near  Adelaide, 
Australia.  Smaller  masses  have  been  found  in  the  copper 
mines  of  Arizona. 


STONES  FOR   3UILDING  AND  DECORATION.  I /I 

The  deep  azure  blue  carbonate  azurite  is  less  common  than 
malachite.  It  occurs  not  infrequently  interbanded  with  the 
latter  in  stalagmitic  masses,  which  show,  therefore,  beautiful 
blue  and  green  concentric  bands  when  cut  across. 

Nephrite,  or  Jade. — The  name  nephrite,  or  jade,  has  been 
given  by  mineralogists  to  a  very  compact  and  tough,  light 
greenish  to  whitish  mineral  of  the  amphibole  group,  and  which 
has  been  used  for  making  cutting-implements  and  ornaments 
by  numerous  widely-scattered  barbarous  or  semi-barbarous 
nations.  The  attention  of  scientists  was  first  drawn  to  the  sub- 
stance by  the  finding  of  implements  of  it,  not  only  among  the 
tribes  still  living,  but  among  prehistoric  ruins,  such  as  the  Swiss 
lake  dwellings.  The  constant  recurrence  of  objects  of  this 
nature  among  perhaps  widely  separated  tribes  was  a  very 
striking  fact,  and  it  was  thought  at  one  time  that  this  might 
indicate  a  means  of  inter-tribal  intercourse,  or  trade,  or  even 
perhaps  a  common  origin,  since  it  at  first  seemed  scarcely 
probable  that  a  stone  so  difficult  to  work  and  of  so  similar  an 
appearance  should  be  found  and  utilized  for  similar  purposes 
the  world  over.  This  idea  has,  however,  been  now  shown  to 
be  fallacious.  It  is,  however,  none  the  less  interesting  a  fact 
that  the  mineral  occurs  in  comparative  rarity  among  so  many 
nations,  and  that  moreover  it  should  have  quite  independently 
been  in  all  cases  adopted  for  similar  purposes. 

The  localities  from  whence  objects  of  nephrite  have  from 
time  to  time  been  reported  by  collectors,  are  as  follows: 
Brittany,  Switzerland,  Silesia,  New  Zealand,  New  Caledonia, 
China,  Turkestan,  Siberia  and  Alaska. 

The  finding  of  nephrite  objects,  as  knives,  beads,  etc., 
'among  natives  of  the  last-named  place,  after  it  was  known  to 
occur  in  Siberia,  gave  rise  to  the  erroneous  supposition  that 
there  was  tribal  communication  between  the  two  localities. 
Within  a  few  years,  however,  various  United  States  exploring 


172  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

parties  have  brought  in  samples  of  the  rough  jade  found  in 
situ  in  Alaska,  proving  again  the  oft-proved  fact  that  as  a 
means  of  tracing  migration  or  communication,  the  occurrence 
of  the  substance  is  of  no  value. 

The  Chinese  seem  to  have  been  the  great  masters  in  work- 
ing this  refractory  material,  and  their  delicate  carvings  of  jade 
are  famous  the  world  over,  and  sometimes  bring  almost  fabu- 
lous prices  among  collectors.  A  thousand  dollars  for  a  finely 
carved  vase  or  ornament,  perhaps  but  a  few  inches  in  length, 
is,  as  I  am  informed,  no  uncommon  figure.  It  is  stated  that  in 
the  Indian  museum,  in  London,  there  is  a  beautiful  white  jade 
object  which  it  required  three  generations  of  jade  workers 
eighty-five  years  to  complete.  As  with  many  other  stones, 
jade  or  nephrite  was  once  believed  to  possess  medicinal  virtue, 
and  its  name,  nephrite,  is  from  the  Greek  word  nephros,  signi- 
fying kidney,  in  allusion  to  its  supposed  efficacy  in  diseases  of 
these  organs. 

It  is  stated  that  jade  was  in  use  among  the  Chinese  fully 
2,737  years  before  Christ,  or  more  than  4,600  years  ago. 

Obsidian. — The  possibilities  of  this  rock  will  be  mentioned 
under  the  head  of  liparites,  and  it  need  not  be  further  described 
here. 

Pegmatite — Graphic  Granite.  This  a  granitic  rock  consist- 
ing mainly  of  quartz  and  orthoclase,  but  in  which  the  constitu- 
ents instead  of  crystallizing  in  the  usual  granular  condition  are 
in  the  form  of  long  parallel  and  imperfect  prisms  as  will  be 
later  noted,  so  that  a  cross  section  shows  the  clear  glassy 
quartz  rudely  imitative  of  letters  of  the  ancient  Grecian  or 
Phoenician  alphabet,  set  mosaic-like  in  a  groundmass  of  white 
orthoclase. 

The  prevailing  color  is  nearly  white,  the  stone  is  hard  and 
can  be  worked  only  in  comparatively  small  pieces. 

Quartz. — The    various   forms  of  silica,  known   as    quartz 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  1 73 

agate,  jasper,  etc.,  are  almost  too  well  known  to  merit  special 
mention. 

The  ordinary  limpid  quartz  and  the  amethystine  variety  is 
used  in  the  cheaper  forms  of  jewelry  and  is  carved  into  beau- 
tiful images  or  polished  spheres  by  the  Japanese,  but  it  is  not 
used  for  large  ornamentation.  The  name  jasper  is  given  to 
an  impure  crypto-crystalline  variety  colored,  blotched  and 
streaked  with  shades  of  red,  brown  and  yellow  by  iron  oxides. 
The  heliotrope  or  bloodstone,  a  green  jasper  blotched  with 
blood  red,  is  one  of  the  most  prized  varieties.  The  name 
agate  is  given  to  the  banded  nodular  masses  of  chalcedony 
that  form  in  the  cavities  of  trap  rock  or  sometimes  replace 
the  organic  matter  in  fossil  wood.  Nearly  all  agates  as  sold 
are  colored  artificially  by  first  boiling  them  in  honey  or  an 
organic  oil  and  then  heating  them,  whereby  the  carbonaceous 
matter  absorbed  unequally  by  the  various  layers  is  turned 
various  shades  of  brown  and  black,  thereby  rendering  more 
conspicuous  the  banding.  Wood  is  not  infrequently  fossilized 
by  silica,  the  organic  matter  being  replaced  atom  by  atom  by 
the  siliceous  matter  until  a  more  or  less  complete  cast  of  the 
woody  structure  remains.  Such  are  often  variously  colored, 
mainly  in  red  tints  by  iron  oxides  and  when  cut  and  polished 
are  very  beautiful. 

In  the  so-called  fossil  forest  near  Corriza,  Apache  County, 
Arizona,  have  been  found  many  tree  trunks  thus  fossilized, 
which,  when  cut  and  polished,  have  furnished  small  columns 
and  tops  for  stands,  of  exceptional  beauty. 

The  great  toughness  of  the  material  renders  it  very  expen- 
sive to  work. 

Rhodochrosite. — This  mineral  is  chemically  a  carbonate  of 
manganese.  Its  claim  as  an  ornamental  stone  lies  in  its  com- 
pact texture  and  delicate  pink  color.  Unfortunately  it  has 
never  been  found  in  uniform  masses  of  large  size;  and  as,  more- 
over, it  is  stated  to  fade  slightly  on  exposure  to  strong  light, 


1/4  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

its  utility  is  perhaps  doubtful.  It  occurs  commonly  in  veins 
along  with  ores  of  gold,  silver  and  copper.  Fine  massive 
blocks  are  taken  out  of  the  silver  and  copper  mines  at  Butte, 
Montana. 

Rhodonite. — This  is  a  silicate  of  manganese  of  a  red  or  pink 
color  and  frequently  more  or  less  streaked  and  spotted.  It  is 
hard  and  tough,  with  a  close  texture,  and  admits  of  a  high 
polish.  It  has  been  as  yet  but  little  used,  the  main  supply  being 
brought  from  the  Urals  of  Siberia.  Boulders  of  the  material 
have  frequently  been  found  at  Cunningham,  Massachusetts, 
and  it  has  been  stated  *  that  the  parent  ledge  is  also  now 
known.  As  the  mineral  here  is  of  exceptionally  fine  color, 
there  is,  perhaps,  a  prospect  that  it  may  become  of  some  com- 
mercial value. 

Like  rhodochrosite  it  is  stated  to  change  color  on  pro- 
longed exposure. 

Thulite  stone. — The  name  thulite  is  given  to  a  red  man- 
ganese epidote,  and  hence  the  name  thulite  stone  to  a  rock  in 
which  this  mineral  is  the  essential  constituent.  So  far  as  the 
author  is  aware  rocks  of  this  nature  have  as  yet  been  found 
in  any  abundance  only  in  Norway,  at  Hinderheim  about  21 
kilometers  north  of  Trondhjem,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Trondhjemfjord.  As  above  noted  the  essential  constituent  is 
thulite  ;  there  is  also  a  little  quartz,  piedmontite,  and  common 
epidote. 

The  texture  is  finely  granular  and  the  color  a  pleasing  rose 
red.  It  has  as  yet  been  little  used,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of 
obtaining  large  blocks  of  uniform  color,  its  brittle  nature,  and 
the  difficulty  of  polishing.  The  rock  is  described  as  occurring 
in  sporadic  areas,  rarely  more  than  5  or  6  feet  across,  in  a 
granitic  gneiss.f 

*  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States.     1887. 

f  H.  Reusch.     Geologtske  lagttageleer  Fra  Trondhjems  Stifft.     1890. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


THE  GRANITES  AND  GNEISSES. 

(l)  COMPOSITION  AND  GENERAL  PROPERTIES. 

Granite  from  the  Latin  granum,  a  grain,  in  allusion  to  the 
granular  structure. 

The  essential  constituents  of  granite  are  quartz  and  a 
potash  feldspar  (either  orthoclase  or  microcline)  and  plagioclase. 
Nearly  always  one  or  more  minerals  of  the  mica,  hornblende 
or  pyroxene  group  are  present,  and  in  small,  usually  microscopic, 
proportions,  the  accessories  magnetite,  apatite,  and  zircon ; 
more  rarely  occur  sphene,  beryl,  tourmaline,  topaz,  garnet 
epidote,  allanite,  fluorite  and  pyrite.  Delesse*  has  made  the 
following  determination  of  the  relative  proportion  of  the  prin- 
cipal constituents  in  two  well-known  granites. 

RED  EGYPTIAN  GRANITE  PORPHYRITIC  GRANITE,  VOSGES. 

Red  orthoclase 43%  White  orthoclase 28^ 

White  albite 9#  Reddish  oligoclase 7% 

Gray  quartz 44%  Gray  quartz 59$ 

Black  Mica 4%  Mica 6% 

100%  100% 

The  average  chemical  composition  is  as  follows  : 

Per  cent. 

Silica 72-00 

Alumina * 15.07 

Iron  peroxide 2.22 

Magnesia 5-°o 

Lime 2.00 

Potash 4-12 

Soda 2.90 

Loss  by  ignition 1.19 

*  Prestwich  Chemical  and  Physical  Geology,  vol.  i.  p   42. 


1/  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

The  average  specific  gravity  of  granite  is  2.66,  which  is 
equal  to  a  weight  of  l66|-  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  or  practically 
2  tons  per  cubic  yard.  According  to  Professor  Ansted* 
granites  ordinarily  contain  about  0.8  per  cent,  of  water,  and 
are  capable  of  absorbing  some  0.2  per  cent.  more.  In  other 
words,  a  cubic  yard  would  in  its  ordinary  state  contain  3.5  gal- 
lons of  water.  The  crushing  strength  of  granite  is  quite  vari- 
able, but  usually  lies  between  15,000  and  20,000  pounds  per 
square  inch,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  tables. 

Structurally  the  granites  are  holocrystalline  granular  rocks 
without  trace  of  amorphous  interstitial  matter.  As  a  rule 
none  of  the  essential  constituents  show  perfect  crystal  outlines, 
though  the  feldspathic  minerals  are  often  quite  perfectly 
formed.  The  quartz  has  in  all  cases  been  the  last  mineral  to 
solidify,  and  hence  occurs  only  as  irregular  granules  occupying 
the  interspaces  of  the  other  minerals.  It  appears  always  fresh 
and  glassy,  but  on  microscopic  examination  is  found  to  contain 
numerous  inclosures,  such  as  rutile  needles  and  little  prisms  of 
apatite.  A  most  interesting  fact  is  the  presence  of  minute 
cavities  within  the  quartz,  usually  filled  wholly  or  in  part  with 
a  liquid,  though  sometimes  empty.  This  liquid  is  commonly 
water  containing  various  salts,  as  the  chloride  of  sodium  or 
potassium,  which  at  times  separates  out  in  the  form  of  minute 
crystals.  Carbonic  acid  is  frequently  present,  giving  rise  to  a 
minute  bubble  like  that  of  a  spirit-level,  and  which  moves  from 
side  to  side  of  its  small  chamber  as  though  endowed  with  life, 
So  minute  are  these  cavities  that  it  has  been  estimated  from 
one  to  ten  thousand  millions  could  be  contained  in  a  single 
cubic  inch  of  space.f  The  rocks  vary  in  texture  almost  in- 
definitely, presenting  all  gradations  from  fine  and  evenly  granu- 


*  Hull,  Building  and  Ornamental  Stones,  p.  30. 

f  Judd,  Volcanoes  ;  What  they  are  and  what  they  teach,  p.  64. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  If? 

lar  to  coarsely  porphyritic  forms,  in  which  the  feldspars, 
which  are  the  only  constituents  porphyritically  developed,  are 
several  inches  in  length.  The  prevailing  color  is  some  shade 
of  gray,  though  greenish,  yellowish,  pink  and  deep  red  are  not 
uncommon.  The  various  hues  are  due  to  the  color  of  the  pre- 
vailing feldspar  and  the  abundance  and  kind  of  the  accessory 
minerals.  Granites  in  which  muscovite  is  the  prevailing  mica 
are  nearly  always  very  light  gray  in  color  :  the  dark  gray  colors 
are  due  largely  to  abundant  black  mica  or  hornblende  :  the 
greenish,  pink  or  red  colors  to  the  prevailing  greenish,  pink  or 
red  feldspars.  The  varying  effects  of  the  predominating  con- 
stituents upon  the  physical  and  enduring  qualities  of  the  stone 
have  already  been  referred  to  under  the  head  of  rock-forming 
minerals  and  need  not  be  repeated  here. 

Gneiss  differs  from  granite  in  that  its  various  constituents 
are  arranged  in  more  or  less  paralled  layers,  giving  the  rock  a 
banded  or  schistose  structure  and  causing  it  to  split  in  a  direc- 
tion paralled  with  the  bands  much  more  readily  than  across 
them.  Chemically  and  from  a  mineral  standpoint  the  rock  is 
identical  with  granite  and  is  used  so  far  as  these  structural 
peculiarities  will  allow  for  the  same  purposes.  It  is  therefore 
in  the  following  pages  included  with  the  granites.  The  word 
gneiss,  it  should  be  stated,  is  of  German  origin  and  pronounced 
as  is  our  word  nice,  not  as  though  spelled  nees. 

These  rocks  are  often  called  stratified  or  bastard  granites 
by  the  quarrymen. 

(2)   GEOLOGICAL  AGE  AND  MODE  OF  OCCURRENCE. 

The  granites  are  massive  rocks,  occuring  most  frequently 
associated  with  the  older  and  lower  rocks  of  the  earth's  crust, 
sometimes  interstratified  with  metamorphic  rocks  or  forming 
the  central  portions  of  mountain  chains.  They  are  not,  as 


178  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

once  supposed,  the  oldest  of  rocks,  but  occur  frequently  in 
eruptive  masses  or  bosses  invading  rocks  of  all  ages  up  to  late 
Mesozoic  or  Tertiary  times.  Thus  Professor  Whitney  consid- 
ers the  eruptive  granites  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  to  be  Jurassic. 
Zirkel  divides  the  granites  described  in  the  reports  of  the  4Oth 
Parallel  Survey  into  three  groups  ;  (i)  Those  of  Jurassic  age  ; 
(2)  those  of  Paleozoic  age,  and  (3)  those  of  Archaean  age.  The 
granites  of  the  eastern  United  States,  on  the  other  hand,  have, 
in  times  past,  been  regarded  as  mainly  Archaean,  though  Dr. 
Wadsworth*  has  shown  that  the  Quincy,  Massachusetts,  stone 
is  an  eruptive  rock  of  late  Primordial  or  more  recent  age,  while 
Professor  Hitchcock  regards  the  eruptive  granites  of  Vermont 
as  having  been  protruded  during  Silurian  or  perhaps  Devonian 
times. 

(3)  VARIETIES   OF   GRANITE. 

In  classifying  granites  the  varietal  distinction  is  based  upon 
the  prevailing  accessory  minerals.  The  more  common  varie- 
ties are  muscovite  granite,  biotite  granite,  muscovite-biotite  gran- 
ite, hornblende  granite  and  hornblende-biotite  granite ;  more 
rarely  occur  augite,  epidote,  tourmaline,  cordierite,  and  chlorite 
granites.  The  variety  without  any  accessory  minerals  is  some- 
times called  granitell.  Protogine  is  the  name  given  to  granites 
which  have  talc  or  chlorite  as  the  characterizing  accessory. 
Pegmatite  or  graphic  granite  is  a  vein  rock  containing  little  if 
any  mica,  but  consisting  nearly  altogether  of  quartz  and  ortho- 
clase.  It  owes  its  peculiar  structure  to  the  crystallization  of 
these  two  constituents  in  long  parallel  and  imperfect  prisms,  so 
that  a  cross-section  shows  peculiar  triangular  and  polygonal 
figures  comparable  to  the  letters  of  the  ancient  Greek  or  Phoe- 
nician alphabets. 

*  Proceedings  Boston  Society  of  National  History,  xxi.  1881. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


Aplit  is  a  name  used  by  the  Germans  for  a  granite  quite 
poor  in  mica,  and  consisting  essentially  of  quartz  and  feldspar 
only.  The  name  greisen  is  applied  to  a  quartz-mica  rock  with 
accessory  topaz  occurring  associated  with  the  tin  ores  of  Sax- 
ony, and  regarded  as  a  granite  metamorphosed  by  exhalations 
of  fluoric  aci-d.  Luxullianite  and  Trowlesworthite  are  tourma- 
line-fluorite  granites  occurring  at  Luxullian  and  Trowlesworth 
in  Cornwall,  England. 

By  far  the  larger  proportion  of  the  granites  at  present 
quarried  in  the  United  States  have  mica,  either  muscovite  or 
biotite,  as  the  characterizing  accessory,  and  hence  can  be 
spoken  of  as  mica  granites. 

(4)   USES  OF  GRANITE. 

Owing  to  their  great  hardness  granites  have,  until  within  a 
few  years,  been  used  only  in  the  more  massive  forms  of  archi- 
tecture. It  is  true  that  in  past  ages  the  cheapness  of  human 
life  and  labor  in  great  part  counterbalanced  this  difficulty, 
and  that  Egyptian  civilization  has  left  a  profusion  of  temples, 
obelisks,  pyramids  and  statues  with  surfaces  or  interiors  often 
carved  and  polished  in  the  finest  and  most  delicate  manner. 
With  the  present  high  valuation  set  upon  labor  such  work 
could  never  be  executed  but  by  the  aid  of  improved  machinery 
and  methods  of  workmanship.* 

It  is  perhaps  only  within  the  last  dozen  or  possibly  twenty 
years  that  granite  has  begun  to  be  considered  an  ornamental 
stone.  Buildings  antedating  this  are  massive,  and  in  only  too 
many  instances  sombre  and  unpleasing.  One's  attention  need, 

*  Granite  came  into  early  use  for  building  purposes  in  America  probably 
more  on  account  of  its  ready  accessibility  than  from  any  desire  on  the  part  of 
the  people  for  so  refractory  a  material,  the  matter  of  transportation  then,  as 
now,  being  an  important  item  in  deciding  what  material  was  to  be  used. 


ISO  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

however,  but  be  called  to  the  highly  ornate  character  of  the 
State,  War  and  Navy  Department  building  in  Washington,  the 
polished  granite  stairways  and  pilasters  in  the  new  City  Hall 
in  Philadelphia,  and  the  thousands  of  granite  tombstones  and 
monuments  in  our  cemeteries  to  be  convinced  that  the  stone 
not  merely  possesses  all  the  requisite  qualities  of  an  orna- 
mental stone,  but  that  its  use  as  such  is  also  eminently  prac- 
ticable. There  are,  indeed,  few  stones  fitted  by  nature  for  so 
wide  an  application.  -  Ranging  in  colors  from  nearly  white  to 
dark  gray,  from  the  most  delicate  pink  to  deep  red,  from  fine 
and  evenly  granular  to  coarsely  porphyritic,  the  stone  more 
nearly  meets  the  universal  need  than  any  other  that  can  be 
mentioned.  It  has  well  been  called  the  noblest  of  rocks. 

(5)   GRANITES  OF  THE  VARIOUS   STATES   AND   TERRITORIES. 

California. — It  is  stated  that  the  first  stone  house  erected 
in  San  Francisco  was  built  of  stone  brought  from  China,  and 
at  the  present  day  the  granites  most  employed  are  brought 
from  Scotland  and  the  Eastern  United  States.  However  this 
may  be,  it  is  obvious  that  this  condition  of  affairs  need  not  long 
continue  to  exist,  since  granites  of  good  quality  occur  in  inex- 
haustible quantity  in  the  near  vicinity.  As  early  as  1853  a 
granite  quarry  was  opened  in  Sacramento  County,  and  since 
then  others  have  been  opened  and  systematically  worked  in 
Penrhyn  and  Rocklin  in  Placer  County.  The  Penrhyn  works  are 
some  28  miles  east  from  Sacramento  on  the  line  of  the  Central 
Pacific  Railroad.  The  first  quarries  were  opened  in  1864,  and 
are  now  said  to  cover  some  680  acres  at  Penrhyn  and  Rocklin,* 
the  latter  point  being  some  6  or  8  miles  distant  from  the 
former  in  a  westerly  direction. 

"""Samples  of  stone  said  to  be  from  Rocklin,  and  which  the  writer  has 
examined,  are  rather  quartz  diorites  than  true  granites. 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING   AND   DECORATION.  l8l 

The  rock  varies  in  color  from  light  to  dark  gray,  one 
variety,  which  contains  both  hornblende  and  biotite,  being 
almost  black  on  a  polished  surface.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  fine 
grained,  and  take  a  good  polish.  Blocks  more  than  100  feet 
long,  50  feet  wide,  and  ten  feet  thick  have  been  quarried  out 
and  afterwards  broken  up. 

The  Penrhyn  stone  is  designated  a  hornblende  granitite 
by  Jackson,*  who  gives  its  mineral  composition  as  quartz, 
orthoclase,  plagioclase,  hornblende,  and  biotite,  with  micro- 
scopic apatite  and  magnetite.  Submitted  by  the  above 
authority  to  the  action  of  a  carbonic  acid  gas  solution,  a  sample 
"of  this  stone  lost  0.05  per  cent  in  weight ;  by  disintegration  in 
acid  fumes  it  lost  1.09  per  cent.  In  this  latter  treatment 
every  mica  scale  on*  the  surface  of  the  exposed  fragments 
bleached  to  a  pearly  whiteness.  The  iron  was  dissolved  out, 
staining  the  rock  slightly,  while  the  feldspar  grains  became  a 
trifle  duller  in  lustre.  On  being  heated  in  a  muffle  to  some- 
what above  a  bright  redness,  the  stone  developed  a  complete 
network  of  deep-seated  cracks,  and  after  emersion  in  water 
could  be  readily  crushed  to  powder  in  the  hands. 

The  Rocklin  stone  is  described  by  the  same  authority  as  a 
fine-grained  white  stone,  carrying  abundant  small  scales  of 
black  mica  and  occasional  granules  of  pyrite.  The  composi- 
tion is  given  as  essentially  the  same  as  the  Penrhyn  stone, 
but  that  muscovite  replaces  the  hornblende.  Submitted  to  the 
same  tests  as  above  the  stone  lost  in  the  carbonic  acid  gas  solu- 
tion o.i  per  cent;  and  by  decomposition  and  disintegration  in 
the  strong  acid  fumes  0.68  per  cent.  In  this,  as  in  the  last 
case,,  mica  scales  bleached  white,  and  the  rock  became  slightly 
stained.  Heated  in  the  muffle  the  stone  behaved  like  the 
Penrhyn  granite,  though  not  cracking  quite  so  deeply ;  it, 

*  Eighth  Annual  Report  State  Mineralogist  of  California.     1888. 


182  STONES  FOR  BUIIJDING  AND  DECORATION. 

however,  could  be  readily  crushed  to  powder  after  immersion. 
Reports  on  crushing  strength  and  ratio  of  absorption  of  these 
stones,  and  also  that  of  a  very  similar  granite  from  Mount  Ray- 
mond is  Fresno  County  are  given  in  the  table,  on  p.  404.  A 
fine  quarry  of  granite  is  stated  to  occur  some  eight  miles  north- 
east of  Sonora  in  Tuolumne  County. 

A  fine-grained,  very  light-gray  granite  of  excellent  appear- 
ance, said  to  be  found  on  the  line  of  the  California  Southern 
Railroad  between  Los  Angeles  and  Cucamonga,  is  beginning 
to  be  used  in  Los  Angeles.  In  texture  it  is  as  fine  as  the  finest 
Westerly,  (Rhode  Island),  or  Manchester  (Virginia)  stone, 
and  of  a  uniform  light  gray  color.  A  coarser  stone,  carrying 
abundant  hornblende  and  black  mica,  is  found  also  at  Sawpit 
Canon,  in  the  same  county.  It  works  readily,  but  contains  too 
much  hornblende,  and  also  too  many  small  crystals  of  sphene, 
to  be  of  value  for  fine  monumental  work. 

Colorado. — Until  within  a  comparatively  recent  period 
granites  have  been  but  little  worked  in  Colorado,  although  the 
State  contains  great  quantities  of  this  material.  A  coarse  red 
granite  has  been  quarried  to  some  extent  from  bowlders  at 
Platte  Cafton,  Jefferson  County,  but  the  rock  is  poor  in  color 
and  possesses  but  little  tenacity.  Fine  gray  granite  of  good 
quality  occurs  at  Georgetown  and  Lawson,  in  Clear  Creek 
County,  and  there  are  inexhaustible  quantities  of  equally  good 
material  all  through  the  mountains,  but  which  are  not  quarried 
owing  to  the  cost  of  transportation. 

•  Connecticut. — Extensive  quarries  of  granite  and  gneiss  are 
located  at  various  points  in  this  State,  especially  near  Thom- 
aston  and  Roxbury,  in  Litchfield  County ;  on  Long  Island 
Sound,  Fairfield  County ;  near  Ansonia,  Bradford,  and  Stony 
Creek,  New  Haven  County  ;  Haddam,  Middlesex  County,  and 
near  Lyme,  Niantic,  Groton,  and  Mason's  Island,  New  London 
County.  The  Connecticut  granites  and  gneisses  are  usually 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  183 

« 

fine-grained  and  light  gray  in  color,  and  the  appearance  is,  as 
a  rule,  so  characteristic  as  to  distinguish  them  from  other  gran- 
ites of  the  Atlantic  States. 

The  most  of  these  stones  are,  however,  quarried  only  for 
local  use,  and  but  few  find  their  way  into  markets  outside  of  the 
State.  A  beautiful  light  gray  muscovite-biotite  granite  is  quar- 
ried at  Thomaston  and  Reynolds  Bridge,  which  for  evenness  of 
grain  and  clearness  of  color  cannot  be  excelled.  The  stone  from 
Roxbury  is  a  trifle  darker,  but  though  of  fine  and  even  grain 
and  acquiring  a  good  polish,  is  used  only  for  curbings,  founda- 
tions, and  pavings.  The  Ansonia  rock  is  a  very  fine-grained 
muscovite-biotite  gneiss,  and  has  been  used  for  general  build- 
ing purposes  in  New  Haven  and  Bridgeport.  The  Leetes 
Island  and  Stoney  Creek  rocks  are  of  a  pink  color,  the  first 
mentioned  being  sometimes  very  coarsely  porphyritic.  A 
turned  column  of  the  Leetes  Island  rock  in  the  National  Mus- 
eum shows  large  pink  orthoclase  crystals  two  inches  or  more 
in  length  embedded  in  the  finer  gray  groundmass  of  the  rock. 
A  beautiful  and  very  coarsely  crystalline  red  granite  occurs 
near  Lyme,  but  the  stone  is  not  in  the  market,  being  too  ex- 
pensive to  work.  It  has  been  used  to  some  extent  in  Newport, 
Rhode  Island,  and  some  of  the  material  may  be  seen  in  the 
Chaney  Memorial  Church  at  this  place.  Contrary  to  the  gene- 
ral rule  in  red  granites,  the  feldspars  of  this  rock  are  not 
opaque  but  quite  clear  and  transparent,  and  in  point  of  beauty 
the  rock  far  excels  the  celebrated  Scotch  granites  from  Peter- 
head.  The  Haddam,  Greenwich,  and  Bridgeport  gneisses  are 
all  hornblendic,  very  dark  gray,  and  split  readily  in  the  direc- 
tion of  their  lamination  ;  their  uses  are  strictly  local. 

Delaware. — This  State  produces  scarcely  anything  in  the 
way  of  granitic  rocks.  A  few  quarries  of  a  dark  gray  gneissoid 
rock  are  worked  near  Wilmington,  and  are  used  for  general 


1 84  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 


building  purposes  in  this  city.  One  church  and  several  private 
dwellings  have  been  constructed  of  this  stone. 

Georgia. — Although  this  State  is  known  to  contain  inex- 
haustible quantities  of  building  stones  of  the  finest  quality,  but 
little  systematic  quarrying  is  done,  and  none  of  the  rocks  have 
more  than  a  local  reputation.  A  fine  grade  of  muscovite  gran- 
ite, light  gray  in  color,  occurs,  at  Stone  Mountain,  near  Atlan- 
ta, and  also  a  dark  gray  hornblendic  gneiss.  A  hornblendic 
granite  resembling  that  of  Quincy,  Massachusetts,  is  said  to 
occur  in  Oglethorpe  County,  though  the  author  has  never 
seen  any  of  the  material. 

Maine. — The  large  extent  of  coast-line  of  the  State  of 
Maine,  composed  of  granitic  rocks  of  a  kind  suitable  for  build- 
ing purposes,  renders  possible  the  shipment  and  transportation 
of  the  quarried  rock  at  rates  much  lower  than  would  otherwise 
be  attainable,  the  quarries  being  frequently  situated  so  near 
the  water's  edge  that  little,  if  any,  handling  is  necessary  prior 
to  loading  upon  the  vessel.  This  favorable  circumstance,  to- 
gether with  the  excellent  quality  of  the  rock  obtainable,  led  to 
the  early  opening  of  very  numerous  quarries  both  on  the  main- 
land and  the  adjacent  islands,  and  hence  at  the  present  time 
Maine  granites  are  found  in  very  general  use  in  nearly  every 
city  of  importance  in  the  country,  even  as  far  west  as  Califor- 
nia, and  frequently  to  the  almost  entire  exclusion  of  perhaps 
equally  good  material  close  at  hand. 

The  granitic  areas  of  the  State  are  outlined  as  follows  by 
Prof.  Hitchcock:*  First  is  the  Katahdin  area,  exclusively  in 
the  forest  region.  This  is  generally  a  fine  grained  rock,  that 
on  Mount  Katahdin  is  tabular,  and  the  sheets  have  a  dip  like 
sedimentary  strata.  The  summit  rock  is  red,  capping  a  white 
variety  of  granite.  The  divisional  planes  seem,  however,  to  be 


Geology  of  Northern  New  England. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  185 

joints.  Neither  this  nor  any  of  the  granite  areas  appear  like 
gneiss,  though  patches  of  gneiss  may  occasionally  be  seen  close 
at  hand.  Between  Penobscot  Bay  and  Schoodic  Lake  (in  Wash- 
ington County)  there  is  probably  a  continuous  band  of  granite, 
which  extends  through  New  Brunswick  northeasterly  a  distance 
of  two  hundred  and  ninety  miles,  and  a  width  varying  from  ten 
to  twenty  miles.  Between  Elsworth  and  Holden,  eleven  miles, 
this  range  is  porphyritic.  In  Topsfield,  Washington  County, 
it  is  hornblendic.  Protogene  (chlorite  granite)  composes 
green  mountain  in  Eden,  on  Mt.  Desert.  Elsewhere  on  the 
island,  there  is  common  granite,  and  a  red  compact  variety, 
with  feldspars  predominating.  This  granitic  area  seems  to  be 
connected  with  the  one  just  described  on  the  west.  Another 
large  granite  area  extends  from  Jonesport  to  Calais  in  Wash- 
ington County,  and  thence  into  New  Brunswick. 

According  to  the  returns  furnished  by  the  special  agents  in 
the  employ  of  the  building-stone  department  of  the  Tenth 
Census,  there  were  during  the  census  year  some  eighty-three 
quarries  of  various  kinds  of  building  stone  in  the  State,  situ- 
ated chiefly  either  immediately  on  the  coast  or  within  easy 
reach  of  tide-water.  Of  these  eighty-three  quarries  seventy- 
four  were  of  granite  or  gneiss.  The  different  varieties  of  these 
stones  produced  may  be  classed  under  the  following  heads : 
Biotite  granite,  biotite-muscovite  granite,  hornblende  granite, 
hornblende-biotite  granite,  biotite  gneiss,  and  biotite-muscovite 
gneiss.  The  great  majority  of  the  stones  now  quarried  belong 
to  the  first-named  variety.  They  vary  in  color  usually  from 
light  to  dark  gray,  though  pinkish  and  red  varieties  are  quar- 
ried in  a  few  instances.  At  Red  Beach,  near  Calais,  and  at 
Jonesborough  there  is  quarried  a  pink  or  reddish  rock,  very 
compact  and  hard,  which  from  a  simple  examination  with  the 
unaided  eye  is  seen  to  be  composed  of  pink  or  cream-colored 
feldspars,  smoky  quartz,  and  a  few  small  shreds  of  mica.  An 


1 86  STOJVJSS  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

examination  of  a  thin  section  with'  the  mjcroscope  does  not 
greatly  increase  the  number  of  constituent  minerals.  The 
mica,  which  is  usually  of  a  greenish  color,  is  very  evenly  dis- 
seminated throughout  the  rock  and  in  very  small  shreds,  bear- 
ing numerous  inclosures  of  magnetite.  A  few  small  apatite 
crystals  are  as  usual  present,  but  are  visible  only  with  a  micro- 
scope. 

The  evenness  of  the  grain  of  these  rocks,  and  the  occurrence 
of  the  mica  only  in  small  amount  and  in  minute  flakes  are  mat- 
ters of  great  practical  importance,  since  they  allow  the  produc- 
tion of  a  more  perfect  surface  and  lasting  polish  than  would 
otherwise  be  possible.  The  texture  is  much  finer  than  is  that 
of  the  red  Scotch  granite,  and  the  color  a  more  delicate  pink. 
They  are,  in  fact,  the  most  beautiful  of  any  of  our  pink  or  red 
granites  now  in  the  market,  and  are  used  very  extensively  for 
monuments,  ornamental  work,  and  general  building  purposes. 
The  largest  blocks  ever  taken  out  from  these  quarries  was  7  by 
7  feet  and  2  feet  thick.  It  is  said,  however,  that  blocks  30  by 
15  by  2^-  feet  could  be  obtained  if  desired.  The  principal  mar- 
kets of  the  stone  are  Boston,  Providence,  New  York  City,  Bal- 
timore, Philadelphia,  Buffalo,  Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  and  Colum- 
bus, Ohio,  Springfield  and  Chicago,  Illinois,  Milwaukee,  St. 
Louis,  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  Washington,  D.  C.,  and 
San  Francisco,  California. 

At  West  Sullivan,  in  Hancock  County,  a  light  gray,  some- 
times slightly  pinkish,  granite  of  medium  texture  is  extensively 
quarried  for  paving  blocks  and  general  building  purposes.  The 
stone  corresponds  closely  with  that  quarried  in  the  town  of 
Franklin.  At  Somesville,  on  Somes  Sound,  near  Southv/est 
Harbor,  Mt.  Desert,  is  quarried  a  granite  of  rather  coase  text- 
ure and  of  a  slightly  pinkish  tinge,  the  color  being  due  to  the 
orthoclase  which  is  often  present  in  crystals  of  such  size  as  to 
give  the  work  a  slight  porphyritic  structure. 

This  stone  was  used  in  the  construction  of  the  Brooklyn  ap- 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  l8/ 

preaches  to  the  East  River  Bridge,  and  in  the  arches  and  foun- 
dations of  the  new  bridges  in  Back  Bay  Park,  Boston.  Blocks 
150  by  50  by  18  feet  have  been  loosened  in  the  quarry.  The 
position  of  these  quarries  is  peculiarly  good  for  shipping,  as 
they  lie  near  the  head  of  Somes  Sound,  along  a  narrow  and 
very  deep  fiord,  running  several  miles  inland  from  South- 
west Harbor,  between  the  mountains.  One  of  the  quarries  is 
situated  on  the  side  of  a  hill  and  at  the  water's  edge.  The 
sheets  of  stone  are  very  thick  in  some  cases,  one  being  18  feet 
in  thickness. 

A  coarse  dull  red,  very  tough  and  strong  hornblende  gran- 
ite is  also  quarried  on  the  island  at  Otter  Creek,  between 
Somes  Sound  and  Bar  Harbor.  The  stone  is  of  finer  texture 
than  are  the  red  Scotch  granites,  and  more  closely  resembles 
the  red  granites  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy  than  any  other  with  which 
the  writer  is  acquainted.  Its  value  for  purely  monumental 
purposes  is  often  lessened  by  the  presence  of  black  patches  of 
finer  grain,  and  which  are  objectionable  either  on  fine  cut  or 
polished  surfaces. 

In  the  vicinity  of  East  Blue  Hill,  in  this  same  county,  are 
quarried  some  of  the  most  beautiful  gray  granites  at  present 
in  the  market.  The  rock  varies  from  fine,  even-grained  gray 
or  slightly  pinkish  to  coarsely  porphyritic.  A  foot  cube  of 
this  granite  in  the  National  collections  is  composed  of  a  fine 
even-grained  gray  groundmass,  carrying  very  many  snow-white 
crystals  of  orthoclase  an  inch  or  more  in  length.  This  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  gray  granites  for  monumental  work  with 
which  the  author  is  acquainted.  Blocks  90  by  80  by  6  feet 
have  been  moved  out  in  some  of  these  quarries.  Specimens 
of  this  granite  tested  at  the  Centennial  Exposition  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1876,  showed  a  crushing  strength  of  22,000  pounds 
per  square  inch.  In  the  quarries  the  stone  lies  in  sheets  from 
3  to  10  feet  in  thickness.  A  portion  of  the  granite  from  this 


1 88  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

region  is  of  a  pinkish  cast,  similar  to  that  of  Mt.  Desert.  On 
the  southern  end  of  Deer  Isle,  also  in  Hancock  County,  and  on 
the  smaller  islands  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  are  inexhaustible 
supplies  of  coarse  gray  granite,  sometimes  porphyritic,  with 
pinkish  orthoclase  crystals  from  two  to  three  inches  in  dia- 
meter. There  is  not,  however,  sufficient  contrast  in  color  to 
make  the  stone  desirable  for  monumental  work,  and  its  coarse 
texture  is  against  it.  Much  of  the  rock  here  closely  resembles 
that  of  Vinalhaven  and  Hurricane  Island,  for  either  of  which 
it  might  readily  be  mistaken. 

Two  varieties  of  granite  are  quarried  at  Mount  Waldo,  in 
the  town  of  Frankfort.  Both  are  light-gray  rocks,  frequently 
porphyritic  with  large  white  orthoclase  crystals.  Both  varie- 
ties are  of  the  same  mineral  composition,  the  difference  being 
simply  one  of  texture,  one  being  quite  coarse  and  somewhat 
porphyritic,  while  the  other  is  much  finer  and  of  more  even 
texture.  The  mica  occurs  in  large  flakes,  which  the  micros- 
cope shows  to  be  frequently  pierced  by  small  crystals  of  apatite. 
A  part  of  the  mica  is  greenish  in  color  and  contains  a  few 
small  grains  of  epidote.  An  occasional  flake  of  white  mica 
was  noticed  in  this  rock,  and  there  is  present  the  usual  sprink- 
ling of  magnetite  granules,  together  with  an  occasional  cube 
of  pyrite.  Quarries  were  opened  at  Mt.  Waldo  in  1853,  and 
single  blocks  80  by  40  by  20  feet  have  been  taken  out  and 
afterward  cut  up.  It  is  estimated  that  blocks  150  by  50  by  12 
feet  could  be  obtained  if  desired.  The  rock  has  been  used 
largely  in  the  building  of  forts  on  the  coast  of  Maine,  but  is 
also  used  for  all  purposes,  both  ornamental  and  otherwise,  to 
which  granite  is  usually  applied,  and  has  been  shipped  as  far 
South  as  Mobile  and  New  Orleans.  The  principal  quarry  is 
situated  on  Mt.  Waldo,  overlooking  the  Penobscot  River,  at  an 
elevation  of  some  320  feet  above  high  tide. 

At   Vinalhaven  or  Fox   Island,  in  Penobscot  Bay,  are  the 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  189 

most  extensive  quarries  at  present  in  operation  in  this  country. 
Quarries  were  first  opened  here  about  1850,  and  the  annual 
product  has  averaged  upwards  of  200,000  cubic  feet,  valued  at 
some  $110,000.  Upwards  of  six  hundred  men  are  regularly 
employed  at  the  works,  though  the  number  has  at  times  risen 
as  high  as  one  thousand  five  hundred.  The  capabilities  of  the 
quarries  can  be  best  illustrated  by  stating  that  during  a  visit  of 
the  writer  to  these  quarries  in  the  summer  of  1883  he  was 
shown  the  remains  of  a  huge  block  of  granite  300  feet  long, 
20  feet  wide,  and  varying  from  6  to  10  feet  in  thickness,  that 
had  been  loosened  from  the  quarry  in  a  single  piece  and  after- 
ward broken  up.  The  largest  block  ever  quarried  and  dressed 
was  the  General  Wool  monument,  now  in  Troy,  New  York, 
which  measured,  when  finished,  60  feet  in  height  by  5^-  feet 
square  at  the  base,  or  only  6  feet  7  inches  shorter  than  the 
Egyptian  obelisk  now  in  Central  Park. 

In  texture  the  Vinalhaven  rock  is  rather  coarse  and  the 
general  color  gray,  although  the  prevailing  feldspar  is  some- 
times of  a  light  flesh  color.  Besides  biotite,  the  rock  contains 
small  amounts  of  hornblende  and  microscopic  apatite  and  zir- 
con crystals.  It  takes  a  good  and  lasting  polish,  and  is  well 
adapted  for  all  manner  of  ornamental  work  and  general  build- 
ing purposes.  The  stone  has  been  used  so  extensively,  all  over 
the  country,  that  to  cite  special  cases  seems  superfluous. 

A  granite  closely  resembling  that  of  Vinalhaven  is  exten- 
sively quarried  at  Hurricane  Island,  some  3  miles  distant,  in  a 
south-westerly  direction,  and  is  used  for  similar  purposes.  The 
structure  of  the  stone  here  differs  in  different  parts  of  the 
quarry.  In  one  portion  it  lies  in  comparatively  thin  sheets, 
while  in  another  there  occur  immense  masses  of  solid  rock, 
extending  downward  for  50  feet  without  perceptible  jointing. 
A  block  of  80  tons  has  been  moved,  and  a  mass  80  by  40  by 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


25  feet  was  loosened  in  the  quarry.  Natural  blocks  500  feet 
long,  20  feet  wide,  and  50  feet  deep  occur. 

The  celebrated  quarries  on  Dix  Island,  in  Knox  County, 
from  whence  was  obtained  the  granite  for  the  United  States 
Treasury  building  at  Washington,  including  the  monolithic 
columns,  31^  high  by  3  feet  in  diameter,  are  at  the  present 
writing  abandoned.  Nearly  the  whole  island  has  been  quarried 
over,  and  the  large  bluffs  entirely  removed.  The  rock  is  rich 
in  quartz,  and  therefore  quite  hard,  but  is  a  good  and  safe 
working  stone.  It  has  been  very  extensively  used  in  New 
York  City,  Philadelphia,  and  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  granite  of  Augusta  and  Hallowell  has  long  been  justly 
celebrated  for  its  beauty  and  fine  working  qualities.  It  is  a 
fine,  light-gray  rock,  the  uniformity  of  texture  being  often 
broken  by  the  presence  of  large  white  crystals  of  microcline, 
which  inclose  small,  rounded  grains  of  quartz.  Biotite  and 
muscovite  occur  in  abundance,  and  in  about  equal  proportions, 
but  in  small  flakes,  the  muscovite  appearing  as  silvery-white 
glistening  particles  on  a  broken  surface  of  the  rock.  The  rock 
is  therefore  classed  as  a  biotite  -muscovite  granite.  Under  the 
microscope  three  feldspars  are  readily  distinguished,  orthoclase 
in  imperfect  crystals  and  irregular  grains,  an  abundance  of 
plagioclase,  and  microcline  in  large  plates  filled  with  cavities 
and  inclosures  of  muscovite  and  quartz.  In  the  thin  sections 
the  quartz  inclosures  are  usually  circular  in  outline  and  are 
pierced  in  every  direction  by  minute  thread-like  crystals  of 
rutile,  in  polarized  light  showing  up  in  strong  contrast  with  the 
beautiful  basket-work  structure  of  the  inclosing  microcline. 
All  the  feldspars  are  quite  fresh  and  pure.  A  few  apatite 
crystals  are  present,  together  with  occasional  garnets,  which  in 
thin  sections  are  destitute  of  crystalline  form,  appearing  as 
rounded  or  oval  nearly  colorless  bodies  traversed  by  many 
irregular  lines  of  fracture.  They  are  quite  free  from  impuri- 


OF  THE- 

THU7ERSITT 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  IQI 

ties,  though  occasionally  containing  inclosures  of  biotite.  As 
is  usual  in  muscovite-bearing  rocks  but  little  magnetite  is 
present  ;  in  two  cases  only  grains  of  pyrite  were  noticed. 

This  is  one  of  the  best  working  of  the  Maine  granites,  and 
is  used  very  extensively,  not  only  for  building  and  monu- 
ments, but  is  carved  into  statues,  like  marble.  The  rock  is 
considered  a  gneiss,  by  Hitchcock,  but  showing  no  signs  of 
stratification  in  the  hand  specimen,  is  classed  here  as  a  granite. 
As  illustrative  of  the  great  extent  of  the  quarries,  it  is  stated 
that  blocks  200  feet  in  length,  by  40  feet  in  width  and  8  feet 
in  thickness,  can  be  broken  out  in  a  single  piece  if  so  desired. 
There  is  no  gap  between  the  sheets,  and  little  or  no  pyrite  to 
cause  discoloration.  The  sheets,  as  is  usually  the  case,  increase 
in  thickness  downward,  being  about  I  foot  thick  at  the  surface 
and  10  feet  thick  at  the  bottom  of  the  present  openings,  which 
are  from  50  to  60  feet  deep.  (See  Plate  VT.) 

This  stone  is  in  such  demand  for  statuary  and  monumental 
work  that  an  Italian  designer,  who  served  his  apprenticeship 
in  Roman  studios,  is  employed  constantly  by  the  company. 
Many  of  the  workmen  are  also  said  to  be  Italians  who  worked 
on  marble  in  Italy,  but  have  learned  to  cut  granite  since  their 
arrival  in  Hallowell.  Among  the  prominent  structures  and 
monuments  constructed,  wholly  or  in  part,  of  this  stone,  are 
the  new  capitol,  Albany,  N.  Y.;  Bank  of  Northern  Liberties, 
Philadelphia  ;  State  capitol,  Augusta,  Me.;  Emory  Block, 
Portland,  Me.;  Odd  Fellows'  Memorial  Hall,  Equitable  Build- 
ing, and  part  of  the  old  Quincy  Market,  Boston ;  Ludlow 
Street  Jail,  the  Tribune  Building,  and  the  old  Tombs  Prison, 
New  York  City ;  the  statues  of  the  Pilgrims'  Monument  at 
Plymouth,  Mass.;  Soldiers' and  Sailors'  Monuments  at  Marble- 
head,  Mass.,  Portsmouth,  Ohio,  Augusta,  Boothbay,  and  Gar- 
diner, Me.;  Odd  Fellows'  Monument,  Mount  Hope,  Boston, 
and  the  Washington  Artillery  Monument  and  Hernandez 


IQ2  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

tomb,  New  Orleans.  The  statues  on  the  Pilgrims'  Monument 
are  said  to  be  the  largest  granite  figures  in  America.  The 
standing  figure  is  38  feet  in  height,  while  the  four  in  sitting 
posture  are  each  fifteen  feet  in  height. 

A  granite  quite  similar  to  that  described  above  is  also 
quarried,  though  less  extensively,  at  North  Jay,  in  Franklin 
County.  Similar  rocks  but  of  a  gneissoid  structure  occur  in 
Waldo  and  Lincoln  Counties. 

Other  granites,  in  many  cases  fully  equal  to  those  above 
described,  occur  in  various  parts  of  the  State,  and  which  can  be 
but  briefly  noticed  for  lack  of  space.  Mention  may  be  made 
of  the  fine  dark-gray  biotite  granite  quarried  at  Swanville  in 
Waldo  County ;  the  fine  and  coarse  gray  stone  of  St.  George 
and  Spruce  Head  Island,  in  Knox  County ;  those  from  Wayne 
in  Kennebec  County ;  Canaan  and  Norridgwock,  in  Somerset 
County ;  Sebec  Lake,  in  Piscataquis  County ;  Brunswick  and 
Pownal,  in  Cumberland  County ;  Biddeford,  South  Berwick 
and  Kennebunkport,  in  York  County;  and  from  Bryant's  Pond, 
in  Oxford  County.  Also  of  the  darker  gray  hornblende  mica 
granites  of  St.  George  and  of  Lincoln,  in  Penobscot  County. 
The  so-called  "  black  granites"  of  Addison,  Vinalhaven  and 
Tenants  Harbor  are  diabases  and  gabbros,  and  will  be  men- 
tioned in  their  proper  places.  (See  p  231.) 

Very  many  of  the  biotite  granites  of  this  State  contain 
numerous  masses  or  nodules  of  a  darker  color  and  finer  text- 
ure than  the  rock  itself,  they  frequently  appearing  as  black 
patches  on  a  polished  surface.  These  are  of  all  sizes  up  to  a 
foot  in  diameter.  They  sometimes  occur  with  sharp,  distinct 
outlines,  or  again  merge  gradually  into  the  surrounding  rock 
with  no  definite  line  of  demarkation.  Some  of  them  possess  a 
fine,  even  texture,  while  others  are  rendered  slightly  porphyri- 
tic  in  structure  through  included  crystals  of  plagioclase  of  con- 
siderable size.  Under  the  microscope  they  are  all  found  to 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  193 

consist  essentially  of  the  same  minerals  as  the  rocks  in  which 
they  occur,  although  in  a  more  finely  crystalline  state  and  dif- 
ferent proportions ;  biotite  usually  prevails  and  causes  the 
dark  color  of  the  patch.  Very  many  of  them,  however,  are 
penetrated  in  every  direction  by  innumerable,  minute,  color- 
less, needle-like  crystals,  an  exact  determination  of  which,  on 
account  of  their  small  size,  is  impossible.  Many  of  the  in- 
cluded larger  crystals  of  feldspar,  which,  so  far  as  observed 
are  always  triclinic,  have  their  angles  rounded  away,  and  are 
reduced  to  mere  oval  grains.  Such  nodules  are  usually  re- 
garded as  of  concretionary  origin.*  The  finer  texture  and 
darker  color  of  these  patches  render  them  very  conspicuous 
and  in  some  of  the  quarries  many  fine  blocks  of  granite  are 
rendered  quite  unsuited  for  finely  finished  or  polished  work  on 
account  of  their  abundance. 

Maryland. — The  Archaean  area  of  Maryland  lies  northwest- 
erly of  an  extremely  sinuous  line  drawn  through  Havre  de 
Gras,  Baltimore  and  Washington,  D.  C.  It  includes,  there- 
fore, large  parts  of  the  counties  of  Cecil,  Harford,  Baltimore, 
Howard,  Montgomery,  Frederick  and  Carroll. \,  Throughout 
this  area  are  numerous  outcroppings  of  granitic  and  gneissic 
rock  of  a  character  suitable  for  general  structural  purposes, 
and  in  a  few  instances  for  monumental  work  as  well. 

The  most  noted  quarries  in  the  State  are  situated  in  Balti- 
more County,  near  Woodstock.  The  rock  is  a  biotite  granite, 
varying  from  light  to  dark  gray  in  color,  and  of  about  medium 
texture.  It  is  used  extensively  for  general  building  purposes 

*  See  "On  Concretionary  Patches  and  Fragments  of  other  Rocks  contained 
in  Granite,"  by  J.  A.  Phillips,  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  London  Geological 
Society,  vol.  xxxvi.  1880,  pp.  1-22.  Also,  "On  the  Black  Nodules  in  the 
Maine  Granites,"  by  G.  P.  Merrill.  Proceedings  U.  S .  National  Museum 
vol.  6,  1883,  p.  137. 

fG.  H.  Williams.  Johns  Hopkins  University  Circular,  vol.  VII.  No.  65. 
1888. 


IQ4  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION, 

and  for  monumental  work  in  Baltimore,  Washington  and 
some  of  the  Western  States.  At  Mount  Royal  and  opposite 
Ellicott  City  fine-grained,  dark-gray  gneiss  is  quite  extensively 
quarried  for  general  building  purposes,  curbstones,  etc.  A 
part  of  this  rock  is  beautifully  porphyritic  through  large  felds- 
pars an  inch  or  more  in  length. 

A  dark-gray  gneiss,  which  is  extensively  used  in  Baltimore 
for  rough  work,  is  quarried  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
city. 

At  Port  Deposit,  in  Cecil  County,  a  gray  biotite  gneiss  is 
extensively  quarried,  and  is  used  chiefly  for  bridge  building, 
docks,  harbor  improvement  and  general  building  work.  It  has 
been  used  in  the  construction  of  Haverford  College,  Maryland, 
St.  Dominick's  Church,  Washington,  and  several  churches  in 
the  immediate  vicinity.  Other  locations  where  good  quality 
of  granite  is  exposed,  are  Gwynn's  Falls,  in  Baltimore  County, 
and  3  miles  east  of  Rockville,  in  Montgomery  County. 

All  of  the  Maryland  granites  and  gneisses  at  present 
quarried  have  biotite  as  their  chief  accessory,  are  of  a  gray 
color  and  of  medium  fineness  of  grain.  They  appear,  how- 
ever, better  adapted  for  general  building  than  for  ornamental 
work. 

Massachusetts. — As  Massachusetts  was  the  earliest  settled 
of  the  New  England  States,  it  is  but  natural  that  here  the  sys- 
tematic quarrying  of  granite  should  first  be  undertaken.  As  al- 
ready noted,  granite  from  the  bowlders  on  the  Quincy  Commons 
and  from  Chelmsford  began  to  be  used  in  and  about  Boston  as 
early  as  1737,  but  it  was  not  until  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century  that  its  use  became  at  all  general.  Indeed,  it  may  be 
said  that  it  was  not  until  the  opening  of  the  quarries  at  Quincy 
in  1825  that  the  granite  industry  assumed  any  importance. 
From  this  time  the  use  of  the  stone  for  general  building  pur- 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  195 

poses  increased  in  a  marked  degree,  and  the  history  of  granite 
quarrying  in  the  United  States  may  properly  begin  with  this 
date. 

This  early  opening  of  quarries  at  Quincy  was  due  largely 
to  the  demand  for  stone  at  Charlestown  for  building  the 
Bunker  Hill  monument,  but  the  attention  of  capitalists  being 
thereby  called  to  the  extent  of  the  granite  ledges  in  this  vi- 
cinity other  works  were  soon  established,  and  at  the  present 
time  the  two,  towns  of  Quincy  and  West  Quincy  contain  up- 
wards of  thirty  quarries.  Altogether  these  produce  not  less 
than  700,000  cubic  feet  annnally,  and  give  employment  to 
nearly  a  thousand  men. 

.The  Quincy  granites  are,  as  a  rule,  dark  blue-gray  in  color, 
coarse  grained,  and  hard.  A  pinkish  variety  is  quarried  to  a 
slight  extent.  They  are  all  hornblende  pyroxene  granites,  and 
their  general  appearance  so  characteristic  that  once  seen  they 
are  always  easily  recognizable  wherever  met  with.  As  already 
mentioned,  these  rocks  contain  besides  hornblende  a  brittle 
variety  of  pyroxene,  which  makes  the  production  of  a  perfect 
surface  somewhat  difficult.  Nevertheless,  they  are  very  ex- 
tensively used  both  for  rough  and  finished  work.  The  United 
States  custom-houses  at  Boston,  Massachusetts  ;  Providence, 
Rhode  Island  ;  Mobile,  Alabama  ;  Savannah,  Georgia  ;  New  Or- 
leans, Louisiana,  and  San  Francisco,  California,  are  of  this 
stone,  as  are  also  the  new  Masonic  Temple  and  Ridgeway  Li- 
brary buildings,  in  Philadelphia.  In  Boston  alone  there  are  one 
hundred  and  sixty-two  buildings  constructed  wholly  or  in  part 
of  this  material.  Its  suitability  for  interior  decorative  work 
cannot  be  better  shown  than  by  reference  to  the  polished  stair- 
ways and  pilasters  in  the  new  city  buildings  at  Philadelphia. 

Other  very  extensive  quarries  of  hornblende-granite  are 
located  at  Cape  Ann,  in  the  town  of  Gloucester,  where  it  is 


196  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

stated*  that  quarrying  was  commenced  as  early  as  1824  by  a 
Mr.  Bates,  of  Quincy.  The  largest  quarries  in  the  State,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  those  at  Vinalhaven,  Maine,  the  largest 
works  now  in  operation  in  the  United  States,  are  situated  at 
this  place.  Like  that  of  Quincy,  the  rock  is  hornblendic,  though 
frequently  considerable'black  mica  is  present.f  The  texture  is 
coarse  and  the  color  greenish,  owing  to  the  orthoclase  it  con- 
tains. Some  varieties  are,  however,  simply  gray.  It  is  a  hard, 
tough  rock,  eminently  durable,  and  well  suited  for  all  manner 
of  general  building  and  ornamental  work.  The  stone  has  been 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  post-office  and  several  churches 
and  private  buildings  in  Boston,  and  the  Butler  house  on  Cap- 
itol Hill  at  Washington. 

Other  hornblendic  granites,  somewhat  similar  in  appear- 
ance, are  quarried  at  Rockport,  Peabody,  Wyoma,  Lynn,  and 
Lynnfield.  The  Rockport  stone  is  the  most  important  of 
these,  and  has  been  quarried  since  1830.  In  color  and  texture 
it  is  indistinguishable  from  much  of  the  Gloucester  stone,  but, 
if  anything,  is  of  a  more  decided  greenish  hue.  In  the  quar- 
ries it  is  extremely  massive,  and  blocks  100  feet  long  by  50  feet 
wide  and  16  feet  thick  have  been  loosened  from  the  bed  in  a 
single  piece,  while  it  is  estimated  a  block  200  feet  long,  50  feet 
wide  and  20  feet  thick  could  be  obtained  if  desired.  The  prin- 
tipal  markets  are  New  York,  Boston,  New  Orleans,  and  Cuba. 

Several  important  quarries  of  coarse  biotite  granite  are 
worked  in  this  State,  but  their  product  is  mostly  used  in  the 
near  vicinity.  Light  pink  varieties  admirably  adapted  for  rock- 
faced  work  occur  at  Brockton,  Milford,  and  North  Easton.  The 


*  History  of  Gloucester,  Cape  Ann,  by  J.  J.  Babson,  p.  577. 

f  The  black  mica  of  the  Gloucester  and  Rockport  granites  has  been  shown 
by  Professors  Dana  and  Cooke  to  be  lepidomelane  or  annite.  (Text-book  of 
Mineralogy,  p.  313). 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

Milford  stone  is  particularly  effective  when  used  in  this  manner, 
as  is  well  illustrated  in  the  new  city  hall  at  Albany,  New  York, 
and  also  in  the  new  railway  station  at  Auburndale,  Massachu- 
setts. At  Framingham,  Leominster,  Fitchburg,  Clinton,  Fall 
River,  and  Freetown  are  also  quarries  of  coarse  gray  but  ap- 
parently strong  and  durable  granites  of  this  class. 

Epidote  granite. — This  is  a  rare  variety  of  granite  in  this 
country,  the  quarries  of  Dedham  producing  all  that  is  now  up- 
on the  market.  The  stone  is  fine-grained  and  of  a  light  pink 
color.  Besides  epidote,  which  is  visible  to  the  naked  eye  as 
small  greenish  specks,  it  contains  numerous  flecks  of  chlorite, 
resulting  from  the  alteration  of  a  black  mica.  The  stone  works 
readily  and  gives  very  pleasing  effects  either  in  polished  or 
rock-face  work.  It  is  of  this  stone  that  was  constructed  the 
new  Trinity  Church  in  Boston,  and  which  is  considered  by  good 
authorities  to  be,  from  an  architectural  standpoint,  the  finest 
building  in  America. 

Gneiss. — A  fine-grained  very  light  gray,  sometimes  pinkish, 
muscovite  gneiss  of  excellent  quality  has  been  quarried  more 
or  less  for  the  past  thirty-five  years  near  the  town  of  Westford. 
Other  quarries  of  gneiss  are  at  West  Andover,  Lawrence,  Low- 
ell, Ayer,  several  towns  in  Worcester  County,  at  Becket,  North- 
field,  and  Monson. 

Being  in  most  cases  distinctly  stratified,  these  gneisses  are 
not  adapted  to  so  wide  a  range  of  application  as  the  massive 
granites,  but  at  the  same  time  the  ease  with  which  in  many 
cases  they  can  be  quarried  makes  them  particularly  valuable 
for  foundations,  bridge  abutments,  curbing,  paving  and  rock- 
faced  building.  At  the  Monson  quarries,  for  instance,  the  rock 
is  divided  by  a  series  of  joints,  approximately  parallel  to  the 
surface  of  the  hill  on  which  the  quarries  are  situated,  into  im- 
mense lenticular  sheets  from  6  inches  to  10  feet  in  thickness. 
By  taking  advantage  of  these  uatural  facilities  a  block  was 


IQ8  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

split  out  in  1869  which  measured  3 54  feet  in  length  by  n  feet 
in  width  and  4  feet  in  thickness.  An  analysis  of  the  Monson 
stone  from  the  Flint  quarry  is  given  in  the  tables. 

As  a  general  rule  it  may  be  stated  that  while  the  granites 
and  gneisses  of  Massachusetts  are  good  and  safeworking  stones 
they  are  coarse  and  with  a  few  prominent  exceptions  in  no  way 
remarkable  for  their  beauty.  In  the  matter  of  color  and  text- 
ure they  bear  a  striking  contrast  to  the  fine  and  even  grained 
stones  of  her  sister  States,  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island. 

Minnesota. — According  to  Professor  Winchell  more  than 
half  the  State  of  Minnesota  is  underlaid  by  that  general  class 
of  rocks — the  crystalline — to  which  granite  belongs.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  State  there  are  large  exposures  of  very 
fine  light-colored  granites,  but  being  beyond  the  limits  of  set- 
tlements and  roads  those  in  the  southern  and  western  part,  in 
the  country  bordering  along  the  Mississippi  and  Minnesota 
Rivers,  are  of  more  especial  interest  and  importance.  These 
last  have  been  somewhat  quarried  and  the  materials  can  be 
seen  in  some  of  the  principal  buildings  in  various  parts  of  the 
State,  as  well  as  in  cities  beyond  the  State  limits.  The  first 
quarry  in  these  rocks  in  Minnesota  was  that  now  owned  by 
Breen  &  Young,  at  East  St.  Cloud,  Sherburne  County. 

This  was  opened  in  1868,  and  the  stone  first  taken  out  was 
used  in  the  corners,  steps,  and  trimmings  of  the  United  States 
custom-house  and  post-office  in  St.  Paul.  Three  kinds  of 
stone  were  taken  out  and  used  indiscriminately,  and  all  of 
them  may  be  seen  in  the  building  first  erected.  The  variety 
now  more  generally  used  is  of  a  gray  color  and  uniform  text- 
ure. The  crystalline  grains  are  rather  fine,  so  that  the  texture 
is  close.  The  color,  however,  is  sometimes  disturbed  by  the 
appearance  of  greenish  spots  of  the  size  of  butternuts  or  even 
as  large  as  6  inches  in  diameter,  caused  by  segregations  of  a 
green  chlorite.  "  About  one-third  of  the  whole  rock  is  made 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  1 99 

up  of  quartz,  and  two-thirds  of  the  remainder  of  orthoclase. 
About  one-half  the  remainder  is  hornblende  and  the  residue 
is  divided  between  the  other  minerals,  the  chlorite  predominat- 
ing." An  occasional  grain  of  a  triclinic  feldspar  is  present 
together  with  magnetite  and  pyrite  in  minute  crystals.* 

"  The  red  granite  from  East  St.  Cloud  is  not  very  different 
from  the  foregoing,  but  the  feldspar  is  mainly  flesh  red  and 
all  the  grains  are  coarser."  It  also  has  a  higher  per  cent  of 
silica,  a  fact  that  has  been  discovered  practically  by  the  owners, 
who  had  given  up  the  general  use  of  it  because  of  its  being 
more  costly  to  work.  "  ...  In  the  winter  of  1874-5  a  block 
weighing  ten  tons  was  taken  out  of  the  red-granite  quarry, 
about  3  miles  west  of  St.  Cloud,  for  a  monument  base.  ...  It 
was  very  fine,  and  greatly  resembled  the  Scotch  granite  in 
color,  grain,  and  polish.  At  the  point  where  this  was  taken 
out  the  granite  rises  about  20  feet  above  the  general  surface 
and  spreads  over  more  than  an  acre.  A  similar  red  granite 
occurs  at  Watab  (in  Benton  County),  and  has  furnished  several 
handsome  monuments."  A  light  gray  granite  also  occurs 

here.f 

At  Sauk  Rapids,  in  the  same  county,  there  is  found  a  fine- 
grained gray  granite  closely  resembling  the  gray  variety  from 
East  St.  Cloud.  It  has  been  quite  generally  used,  and  is  one 
of  the  best-known  granites  in  the  State. 

Missouri. — Although  there  are  inexhaustible  quantities  of 
granite  in  the  northern  part  of  Iron  and  Madison  Counties  and 

*  See  Geology  and  Natural  History  Survey  of  Minnesota,  vol.  I.  pages  142- 
148. 

f  These  rocks  are  designated  in  Professor  Winchell's  report  above  referred 
to  as  "  Syenites."  According  to  the  system  of  classification  now  generally 
adopted,  they  are  rather  hornblendic  or  hornblende-biotite  granites,  as  desig- 
nated by  the  author  in  the  census  report,  p.  90.  The  name  syenite,  as  already 
noted,  is  applied  to  a  quartzless  rock  (see  pp.  42  and  223). 


2OO  STOA^ES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

the  southern  portion  of  St.  Francois,  there  are  but  few  quarries 
of  the  material  systematically  worked. 

At  Graniteville,  Iron  County,  and  in  Syenite,  St.  Francois 
County,  there  occurs  a  coarse  red  granite,  quite  poor  in  mica, 
which  is  now  extensively  quarried  for  the  St.  Louis  and 
Chicago  markets.  It  is  somewhat  lighter  in  color  than  the 
well-known  Scotch  granite,  but  is  admirably  suited  for  massive 
structural  purposes,  as  is  well  illustrated  in  the  lower  stories  of 
the  fine  business  blocks  erected  during  the  season  of  1886  on 
Adams  street,  between  Fifth  avenue  and  Franklin,  and  on  the 
corner  of  Adams  and  La  Salle  streets,  in  Chicago.  The  enor- 
mous blocks  of  rock-faced  granite  and  large  polished  columns 
of  this  stone  as  here  displayed*  would  indicate  that  this  is  des- 
tined to  be  one  of  the  leading  granites  of  this  portion  of  the 
country.  It  admits  of  a  high  lustrous  polish  and  is  coming 
into  use  for  monumental  work. 

Professor  Broadhead  statesf  that  the  Archaean  granites  are 
exposed  to  view  over  an  area  of  over  1 50  square  miles  in 
Madison  County,  with  as  large  an  area  in  St.  Francois,  a 
smaller  one  in  Iron  County,  a  few  square  miles  in  St.  Genivieve, 
and  a  limited  area  in  Wayne.  The  colors  are  various  shades 
of  gray  and  red.  Exposed  strata  show  evidence  of  continuous 
weathering  through  many  years.  Since  opening,  the  interior 
beds  show  favorable  characters  for  durability.  At  the  Knob 
Lick  quarries,  St.  Francois  County,  there  are  three  varieties, 
as  to  color,  red,  gray,  and  red  and  whitish.  Of  these  the  gray 

*  The  window-sills  in  the  first  of  the  above-mentioned  buildings  are  rough 
blocks  of  granite,  each  3  feet  square  by  17  feet  4  inches  in  length,  and  weighing 
about  10  tons  each.  The  polished  columns  of  the  building  corner  of  Adams 
and  La  Salle  streets  are  ten  in  number,  each  18  feet  high  by  4^  feet  in  diameter, 
and  weighing  not  far  from  18  tons.  The  largest  single  block  of  polished  granite 
yet  produced  at  these  works  is  the  Allen  monument,  in  St.  Louis,  which  is  42 
feet  in  height  by  4^  feet  square  at  the  base.  The  weight  is  about  45  tons. 

f  The  Building  Trades  Journal,  July,  1888. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  2OI 

is  considered  the  best.  A  dark  colored  but  handsome  stone  is 
quarried  near  Piedmont,  in  Wayne  County.  A  dark  grayish- 
brown  porphyritic  rock  is  quarried  in  the  northern  part  of 
Madison  County,  and  a  similar  rock  occurs  at  Fredericktown  ; 
also  one  of  like  composition  and  appearance  covers  several 
square  miles  of  Stone  mountain  in  St.  Francois  County.  Gray 
granite  is  also  found  eight  miles  southwest  of  Ironton  in  Iron 
County,  and  in  the  northern  part  of  Madison  ;  a  coarser  felds- 
pathic  granite  is  also  found  in  the  northwestern  part  of  this 
same  country. 

Montana. — There  is  a  plenty  of  good  granite  within  the 
limits  of  the  State,  but  for  lack  of  a  market  scarcely  any  quar- 
rying is  at  present  carried  on. 

A  cube  of  a  fine-grained  light  gray  biotite  granite  is  in  the 
collections  of  the  National  Museum  from  Lewis  and  Clark 
Counties,  but  so  far  as  the  writer  is  aware  the  quarry  has  never 
been  worked  to  any  extent.  A  coarse  hornblende  mica  granite 
of  a  greenish-gray  color  and  somewhat  resembling  the  cele- 
brated Quincy  and  Gloucester  (Massachusetts)  stone  forms  the 
country  rock  in  the  region  of  the  celebrated  silver  and  copper 
mines  of  Butte,  and  is  beginning  to  be  used  for  purposes  of 
heavy  foundation  and  general  building.  So  far  as  the  writer 
was  able  to  judge,  from  the  short  time  he  was  on  the  ground, 
the  rock  is  of  excellent  quality,  but  needs  to  be  selected  with 
care,  as  certain  portions,  those  in  proximity  to  the  ore  veins, 
are  abundantly  charged  with  pyrite,  which  oxidizes  readily  on 
exposure. 

New  Hampshire. — Those  of  the  New  Hampshire  granites 
that  are  best  known  as  building  materials  belong,  according  to 
Prof.  Hitchcock,*  to  what  is  called  the  Montalban  or  White 
Mountain  series  of  the  Eozoic  formations,  a  series  extending, 

*  Geology  of  Northern  New  England,  p.  10. 


202  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

though  not  continuously,  over  fully  two-thirds  of  the  central 
and  eastern  part  of  the  State.  These  granites  are,  as  a  rule, 
of  a  light  gray,  nearly  white,  color,  fine  grain,  and  are  quarried 
in  Concord,  Fitzwilliam,  Milford,  Farmington,  Hooksett,  Pel- 
ham,  Salem,  Marlboro,  Troy,  Sunapee,  Allentown,  Hanover, 
Rumsey,  Mason,  and  elsewhere.  By  far  the  most  important  of 
these,  and  indeed  one  of  the  most  important  granites  of  the 
United  States,  is  the  muscovite-biotite  granite  of  West  Con- 
cord in  Merrimack  county. 

This  stone  consists,  according  to  Dr.  Hawes,*  of  clear, 
glassy  quartz,  penetrated  in  every  direction  by  minute,  dark, 
rutile-like  needles,  snow-white  twin  orthoclase  crystals,  finely 
banded  oligoclase,  both  white  and  black  mica,  and  an  occa- 
sional microscopic  apatite  crystal.  In  texture  it  is  as  fine  as 
many  marbles,  though  at  times  slightly  porphyritic.  Its 
remarkable  feature,  aside  from  color,  texture  and  freedom  from 
flaws,  pyrite  or  other  injurious  constituent,  is  the  wonderful 
ease  with  which  it  can  be  worked.  Owing  to  its  well  developed 
rift  and  grain,  blocks  can  be  split  out  with  a  hammer  with 
almost  the  ease  of  blocks  of  wood,  though  at  the  same  time 
neither  of  these  qualities  are  sufficiently  prominent  to  prevent 
its  being  worked  readily  with  the  tool  in  any  direction.  It 
can,  therefore,  be  used  in  statuary  work,  and  is  also  used  for 
general  building  and  monumental  work  in  the  eastern  cities. 
The  quarries,  of  which  there  are  several,  are  situated  upon  the 
eastern  slope  of  Rattlesnake  Hill,  and  means  of  transporta- 
tion are  furnished  by  the  Concord  and  Claremont  Railroad, 
which  skirts  its  base.  The  quarry  openings  are  as  a  rule,  situ- 
ated in  the  hillside,  allowing  thus  natural  drainage  and  abundant 
room  for  quarry  dump,  aside  from  ready  facilities  for  quarrying 
and  loading  the  material  upon  teams  to  be  hauled  to  the  rail- 

*  Mineralogy  and  Lithology  of  New  Hampshire,  p.  194. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  2O3 

road.  The  rock  as  shown  at  the  openings  is  quite  massive,  and 
separated  by  two  sets  of  irregular  horizontal  and  vertical  joints 
into  natural  blocks  of  varying  sizes.  Blemishes  as  seen  at  the 
quarries  are  surprisingly  rare,  and  confined  to  a  slight  discolora- 
tion at  the  joints,  and  an  occasional  vein  of  fine  grained  granitic 
material. 

That  the  stone  iseminentely  durable  is  shown  by  the  State- 
house  and  old  State's-prison  buildings,  at  Concord ;  the  former 
having  been  erected  in  1816-19,  and  the  latter  in  1812.  Al- 
though the  stone  in  both  of  these  cases  was  a  result  of  mere 
surface  quarrying  and  presumably  scarcely  better  than  that 
which  is  thrown  into  the  dump  to-day,  both  buildings  are  in  an 
admirable  state  of  preservation,  and  evidently,  so  far  as  the 
stone  is  concerned,  good  for  centuries  to  come.  This  same  stone 
has  been  used  in  the  new  post-office  buildings  at  Concord  and 
Manchester,  and  is  the  one  selected  for  the  new  Congressional 
Library  building  in  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  gneisses  of  the  State  are  less  extensively  quarried,  and 
their  uses  are  more  local.  A  fine  light  gray  stone  of  good 
quality  comes  from  Peterborough,  and  a  light  pinkish  stone, 
flecked  with  black  and  greenish,  from  Lebanon. 

New  Jersey. — The  Archaean  area,  within  which  are  comprised 
all  the  granitic  and  gneissiod  rocks  of  New  Jersey,  crosses  the 
State  in  a  northeasterly  and  southwesterly  direction  in  the  form 
of  a  belt  less  than  twenty  miles  in  width  at  its  greatest  exten- 
sion, and  less  than  half  that  amount  at  its  southeastern  ex- 
tremity. The  belt  enters  the  State  from  New  York  at  a  point 
comprised  between  the  Ramapo  River,  in  Bergen  County,  and 
the  so-called  Drowned  Land,  bordering  along  the  Pennsylvania 
railroad  in  Sussex  County.  The  southern  limit  lies  in  Warren, 
with  a  slight  extension  into  the  northern  part  of  Hunterdon 
County. 

But  few  quarries  are  worked  throughout  the  area  above 


2O4  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

roughly  outlined,  though  in  a  number  of  localities  the  gneissic 
rocks  are  so  situated  as  to  be  worked  at  a  comparatively  small 
expense.  Quarries  at  Dover,  in  Morris  County,  have  furnished 
a  large  amount  of  stone  for  railroad  construction.  The  stone 
is  of  medium  texture  and  of  a  greenish  gray  color. 

A  large  quarry  was  opened  a  few  years  ago  near  Franklin, 
on  the  mountain  east  of  the  village  ;  but  the  place,  though 
promising,  was  soon  abandoned.  The  stone  was  adapted  for 
heavy  work.  The  transportation  appeared  to  be  too  expensive 
for  it  to  compete  with  stone  coming  by  water  routes.* 

Granites  of  the  hornblende-biotite  type,  of  fine  grain  and 
even  texture,  occur  in  the  Vernon  valley,  along  the  eastern 
foot  of  Pochuck  Mountain.  The  stone  is  regarded  as  of  good 
quality,  but  little  that  is  definite  can  as  yet  be  said,  owing  to 
insufficient  development. f 

New  York. — This  State,  although  rich  in  marbles,  limestones, 
and  sandstones,  produces  little  of  general  interest  in  the  way  of 
granite  rock,  though  according  to  Smock  \  "  granites,  syenites, 
gneisses,  and  mica  schists  occur  in  the  counties  of  Rockland, 
Orange,  Westchester,  Putnam,  and  Dutchess,  and  on  New  York 
island.  For  constructive  material  quarries  have  been  opened 
at  many  points,  generally  near  railway  lines  on  the  Hudson 
river."  The  Breakneck  and  Storm  King  Mountain  granite 
quarries  were  opened  many  years  ago,  and  produce  a  gray, 
coarsely  crystalline  material,  little  of  which  finds  its  way  out- 
side of  the  State.  The  more  important  of  the  true  granites  of 
the  State,  for  monumental  work,  would  seem  to  be  the  red 
variety  produced  at  the  various  quarries  on  Grindstone  Island 
(Jefferson  County),  in  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  The  stone, 


*  Annual  Report  of  State  Geologist  of  New  Jersey,  1886,  pp.  41-42. 
f  Annual  Report  of  State  Geologist  of  New  Jersey,  1889. 
\  Bull,  New  York  State  Museum,  No.  3,  March,  1888,  p.  n. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  2O$ 

as  represented  in  the  National  collection,  is  cleep  red  and 
coarsely  crystalline,  taking  a  high  lustrous  polish,  and  may 
well  take  rank  as  one  of  our  most  beautiful  granites.  The 
stone  is  designated  by  the  writer  in  the  tenth  census  report  * 
as  a  hornblende  granite,  carrying  in  addition  to  quartz,  red 
orthoclase  and  hornblende,  a  copper  red  mica,  a  few  small 
apatite  and  zircon  crystals,  together  with  scattering  pyrites  and 
a  little  secondary  calcite.  The  last  two  substances,  if  pre- 
valent throughout  the  quarry,  must  prove  detrimental  for 
exposed  work.  As  shown  by  the  two  finely  polished  columns 
in  the  Senate  Chamber  of  the  new  capitol  building  at  Albany, 
New  York,  it  is,  however,  a  magnificent  stone.  There  are 
said  to  be  many  outcrops  of  the  stone  on  the  island, 
especially  on  the  western  side,  and  small  quarries  have  been 
opened  at  more  than  twenty  different  points.  Prof.  Smock 
states  that  the  stone  is  shown  by  the  outcrops  to  be  very 
durable,  and  that  in  the  larger  quarries  blocks  twenty  feet  in 
length  by  six  feet  square  are  obtainable,  The  greater  part  of 
the  product  goes  to  Western  cities,  as  Chicago,  Cincinnati  and 
Toledo,  and  to  Canada.  Much  of  the  output  is  used  for  pav- 
ing blocks,  and  the  waste  for  granulitic  pavements  in  Montreal. 
The  price  is  stated  to  range  from  $1.00  to  $2.00  per  cubic  foot 
for  blocks  in  sizes  under  twenty  cubic  feet. 

North  Carolina. — About  6  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Concord,  in 
Cabarrus  County,  there  occurs  a  fine-grained,  homogeneous 
deep  pink  granitic  rock,  almost  wholly  lacking  in  mica,  which 
works  readily  and  is  admirably  adapted  for  rock-faced  work. 
The  stone  combines  the  warm  and  pleasing  colors  character- 
istic of  many  free  stones,  with  the  strength  and  general  endur- 
ing qualities  of  granite,  and  with  proper  treatment  leaves  little 
to  be  desired,  particularly  for  suburban  residences. 

*  Vol.  x.  Building  Stone  and  Quarry  Industry,  p.  22. 


2O6  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

Some  nine  miles  south  of  Salisbury,  in  Rowan  County, 
occurs  another  granite  eminently  suited  for  rock-faced  work. 
This  is  also  of  a  pink  cast,  though  very  much  lighter  than  that 
of  Cabarrus  County,  and  of  a  coarser  texture.  The  stone  is 
stated  to  occur  in  unlimited  quantities,  and  blocks  60x40x30 
feet  are  said  to  be  obtainable. 

It  weathers  well  and  has  been  quarried  for  local  use  since 
1878.  A  better  stone  could  scarcely  be  desired  for  massive 
buildings  where  the  ordinary  gray  granite  is  objectionable 
owing  to  its  cold  and  gloomy  aspect. 

Other  pink  granites,  though  of  a  dull  and  less  desirable 
shade,  are  found  at  Cedar  Creek,  some  9  miles  S.  E.  of  Louis- 
burg,  in  Franklin  County,  and  near  Hillsboro,  in  Orange 
County.  A  peculiar  dull  red  and  buff-mottled  gneissic  stone 
is  found  some  three-quarters  of  a  mile  west  of  Mooresville,  in 
Iredell  County,  the  character  of  the  mottling  corresponding  to 
that  of  the  so-called  "  raindrop  "  sandstone  from  L'Anse  and 
Marquette,  Michigan.  The  stone  is  stated  to  weather  and 
work  well,  and  occurs  in  such  outcrops  as  to  give  a  quarry  face 
of  from  40  to  50  feet. 

A  coarse  red  granite,  stated  to  be  well  adapted  for  general 
building,  as  well  as  ornamental  work,  occurs  in  bold  outcrops 
at  the  crossing  of  Contentnea  Creek  and  the  Wheeling  and 
Weldon  R.  R.,  in  Nelson  County.  The  stone  has  been  used 
mainly  for  railroad  work.  A  similar  stone  occurs  near  Wilson, 
in  Wilson  County. 

A  dark-gray  or  sometimes  reddish  granite  rendered  porphy- 
ritic  by  large  pink  crystals  of  feldspar,  and  which  recalls,  in  a 
general  way,  the  well-known  Shap  granite  of  Cumberland, 
England,  occurs  near  Rockingham,  in  Richmond  County,  on 
the  line  of  the  North  Carolina  Central  R.  R.  Some  two  or 
three  miles  west  of  Rockingham  is  a  somewhat  similar  stone, 
but  with  a  peculiar  olive  tinge.  The  porphyritic  structure  of 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  2O? 

the  stone  is  less  striking  than  that  of  the  Shap  granite  above 
noted,  and  the  weathering  qualities  perhaps  doubtful.  Some  5 
miles  S.  E.  of  Davidson  College,  in  Mecklenburg  County, 
there  occurs  a  coarse  gray  granite  made  up  of  white  feldspars 
and  opalescent  quartz  thickly  studded  with  large  deep  green- 
ish-black spots,  caused  by  segregations  of  black  mica  or  horn- 
blende. The  stone  is  as  yet  used  only  for  foundations.  The 
exposures  are  stated  to  cover  an  area  of  half  an  acre. 

Some  four  miles  south  of  Salisbury  are  other  occurrences 
of  medium  grained  homogeneous  gray  granites  outcropping  in 
huge  ledges  forming  the  so-called  Dunn's  Mountain.  The 
stone  has  been  used  in  the  post-office  building  at  Raleigh. 

Gray  granite  closely  simulating  the  ordinary  types  from  the 
coast  of  Maine  occur  about  four  miles  south  of  Winston,  in 
Forsyth  County,  and  some  ten  miles  southwest  of  Greensbor- 
ough,  Guilford  County.  The  first  mentioned  is  stated  to 
weather  well,  to  be  procurable  in  any  quantity,  and  in  blocks 
of  any  desirable  size.  The  Greensborough  quarry  is  in  close 
juxtaposition  to  the  railroad,  and  is  reported  as  producing  a 
fair  quality  of  stone,  though  of  somewhat  variable  character. 

Other  gray  granites  worthy  of  notice  occur  some  2\  miles 
north  of  Toisnot,  in  Edgecombe  County  ;  near  Gastonia,  in 
Gaston  County,  and  at  Mount  Airy,  in  Surry  County.  The 
first  mentioned  is  used  for  general  building  and  bridge  work, 
and  a  railroad  runs  to  the  quarry.  The  principal  market  is 
Wilmington. 

Still  other  granites  and  gneisses  at  present  of  local  impor- 
tance only  occur  in  various  parts  of  Buncombe,  Stokes,  Wake, 
Vance,  McDowell,  and  Cleveland  Counties. 

A  very  peculiar  variety  of  granite,  and  one  which  may 
prove  of  value  for  ornamental  purposes,  occurs  at  Coolomee, 
in  Davie  County.  The  stone  is  composed  of  radiating  green 


TJFIVERSITT 


2C>8  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

augites  in  rounded  masses  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  im- 
bedded in  a  white  or  pinkish  ground  mass  of  quartz  and  feld- 
spar. On  a  polished  surface  the  effect  is  quite  unique. 

Pennsylvania. — Although  ranking  as  second  in  importance 
in  the  list  of  stone-producing  States,  Pennsylvania  furnishes  very 
little  in  the  way  of  granitic  rock,  and  absolutely  nothing  in  this 
line  of  more  thin  local  interest.  "  The  southern  gneisses  dis- 
trict, described  in  the  geological  reports  of  Pennsylvania  as 
ranging  from  the  Delaware  River  at  Trenton  to  the  Susque- 
hanna,  south  of  the  State  line  and  lying  south  of  the  limestone 
valley  of  Montgomery,  is  the  district  in  which  are  located 
nearly  all  the  quarries  of  gneiss  in  the  State,  and  those  furnish- 
ing most  of  the  material  are  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia." 
The  rock,  which  is  for  the  most  part  a  dark-gray  hornblende 
gneiss,  is  quarried  at  Rittenhousetown,  Twenty-first  ward,  and 
Germantown,  Twenty-second  ward,  and  Jenkinstown,  in 
Montgomery  County,  and  is  used  principally  for  the  rough 
work  of  foundations  in  the  near  vicinity.  In  Chester,  Dela- 
ware County,  the  gneiss  bears  mica  in  place  of  hornblende  and 
is,  as  a  rule,  lighter  in  color.  The  quarries  are  in  close  prox- 
imity to  the  Delaware  River,  which  affords  an  easy  method  of 
transportation  to  Philadelphia,  the  principal  market.  This 
stone  is  also  used  almost  wholly  for  foundations,  though  in 
some  cases  it  has  been  used  as  rock-faced  work  in  the  fronts  of 
private  dwellings,  with  rather  a  pleasing  effect. 

Rhode  Island. — The  granites  of  this  State  are  nearly  all  fine- 
grained light  gray  or  pink  biotite  granites,  the  principal  quar- 
ries of  which  are  situated  some  2  miles  east  from  Westerly,  in 
Washington  County.  The  rock  is  of  fine  and  even  texture  and 
of  excellent  quality,  and  is  much  used  for  monumental  work 
and  general  building.  Other  quarries  of  biotite  granite  occur 
at  Smithfield,  West  Greenwich,  Newport,  and  Niantic.  A 
greenish,  fine  gray,  hornblende  gneiss  is  quarried  at  Diamond 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  2OQ 

Hill,  in   Providence   County.     Aside  from  the  Westerly  rock 
the  most  of  this  material  is  for  local  market  only. 

South  Carolina. — Although  no  granites  from  this  State  are 
to  be  found  in  our  principal  markets,  it  by  no  means  follows 
that  there  is  any  deficiency  in  the  supply.  The  collection  in 
the  National  Museum  shows,  on  the  contrary,  that  excellent 
stones  of  this  class  occur  in  various  localities. 

Near  Winnsborough,  in  Fairfield  County,  quarries  have 
recently  been  opened  which  furnish  fine-grained  gray  biotite 
granite  fully  equal  to  any  in  the  market.  The  quarries,  as  we 
are  informed  by  the  owner,  Mr.  W.  Woodward,  cover  some  70 
acres  of  bowlders  and  two  large  ledges,  one  1 1  acres  in  extent 
and  the  other  6.  The  stone  works  readily  and  acquires  an 
excellent  polish.  A  pinkish  granite  also  occurs  in  this  same 
county.  Other  granites  in  this  State,  of  which  I  have  seen 
specimens,  but  concerning  which  I  have  but  little  accurate 
information,  occur  near  Columbia,  Richland  County ;  and  in 
Newberry,  Lexington,  Edgefield,  and  Aiken  Counties.  The 
Columbia  stone  is  of  a  light-gray  color,  apparently  of  excellent 
quality.  It  was  used  in  the  construction  of  the  State  House 
in  that  city,  and  is  stated  to  be  very  durable. 

Tennessee. — At  the  present  time  scarcely  anything  in  the 
line  of  granitic  rock  is  quarried  in  this  State,  and  owing  to  the 
limited  areas  occupied  by  granite  ledges  it  is  more  than  doubt- 
ful if  the  granite  quarrying  ever  assumes  any  great  importance. 
Small  outcrops  of  granite,  gneiss,  or  mica  schist  occur  in  the 
extreme  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  Polk,  Monroe,  Cocke, 
Washington,  Carter,  and  Johnson  Counties,  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  State,  but  even  these  are  not  in  all  cases  suitable  for 
any  but  the  roughest  work.  The  National  collections  contain 
an  extremely  coarse  greenish  epidotic  granite,  with  large  red 
porphyritic  crystals  of  orthoclase,  from  Bench  Mountain,  in 


2IO  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

Cocke  County,  which  might  perhaps  be  worked  if  there  were  a 
market. 

Texas. — Red  granites,  both  coarse  and  fine,  occur  in  Burnet 
County,  in  this  State,  though  at  present  neither  are  quarried  to 
any  extent.  Both  varieties  carry  biotite  as  the  chief  accessory 
mineral.  The  coarser  variety  corresponds  closely  with  the 
coarse  red  granite  from  Platte  Canon,  Colorado.  Their  colors 
are  dull  and  they  seem  better  adapted  for  rough  building  than 
for  monumental  work,  though  the  weathering  qualities  of  either 
are,  to  say  the  least,  doubtful.  Red  and  gray  granites  also 
occur  in  Gillespie  County. 

Utah  Territory. — A  coarse,  light  gray  granite  occurs  in 
inexhaustible  quantities  in  Little  Cottonwood  Cafion,  not  far 
from  Salt  Lake  City.  So  far  the  stone  has  been  quarried  only 
from  bowlders  that  have  been  rolled  down  the  canon,  and  the 
parent  ledge  remains  untouched.  This  stone  has  been  used  in 
the  construction  of  the  new  Mormon  temple  at  Salt  Lake 
City.  It  is  apparently  of  excellent  quality. 

Vermont. — This  State  furnishes  but  little  for  the  general 
market  in  the  way  of  granitic  rocks,  from  the  fact  that  few  of 
her  quarries  produce  material  not  found  elsewhere  in  New 
England,  where  there  are  better  and  cheaper  facilities  for 
transportation.  Except  in  the  north-eastern  portion,  embrac- 
ing nearly  the  whole  of  Essex  County,  granite  is  met  with 
only  in  isolated  outcrops,  either  in  the  form  of  mountain  up- 
lifts, as  Black  Mountain  in  Dummerston,  or  in  narrow  belts 
traversing  the  calcareous  mica  schist  formation,  as  at  Marsh- 
field  and  Barre.  In  the  gneiss  formation,  extending  through 
Reading,  Cavendish,  Chester,  and  Grafton,  on  the  western 
limit  of  the  calcareous  mica  schist  formation,  the  gneiss  passes 
by  insensible  gradations  into  granite,  and  in  many  places  there 
are  afforded  excellent  opportunities  for  quarrying  both  stones 
equally  well.  The  granite  found  in  connection  with  the  gneiss 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  211 

in  these  cases,  is  said  to  be,  as  a  rule  light  colored,  and  of  fine 
texture,  but  generally  harder  to  work  than  those  of  the  isolated 
outcrops,  like  that  of  Barre.  This  last  mentioned  stone  is  a 
fine  grained  biotite  granite  of  excellent  quality,  and  is  found 
in  inexhaustible  quantities.  The  stone  occurs  in  sheets  vary- 
ing in  thickness  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet.* 

Other  granites  deserving  of  especial  mention  are  found  in 
Brunswick,  Essex  County ;  Morgan,  Orleans  County  ;  Ryegate, 
and  St.  Johnsbury,  Caledonia  County,  and  Woodbury  in  Wash- 
ington County.  A  very  light,  almost  white,  muscovite-bear- 
ing  rock  is  also  quarried  at  Bethel,  in  Windsor  County.  These 
granites,  or  at  least  the  eruptive  varieties,  are  regarded  by 
Prof.  Hitchcock  as  of  Silurian  or  possibly  Devonian  age. 
The  gneisses  extending  in  a  continuous  belt  from  the  Massa- 
chusetts line  through  the  central  portion  of  the  State  to 
Canada,  furnish  much  valuable  material  for  local  building, 
curbing  and  flagging. 

Virginia. — The  Archaean  area  of  Virginia,  as  mapped  by 
Rogers,f  comprises  the  tract  lying  east  of  the  Blue  Ridge 
Mountains,  and  a  line  extending  from  a  point  near  Alexandria 
in  Fairfax  County  southerly  through  Spottsylvania,  Henrico, 
Chesterfield,  Dinwiddie,  Sussex,  and  Southampton  Counties 
into  North  Carolina.  But  a  small  part  of  this  area  furnishes 
outcrops  of  quarriable  material,  and  the  principal  works  thus 
far  developed  are  in  Chesterfield  and  Dinwiddie  Counties,  on 
the  James  River,  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Richmond. 

The  quarries  on  the  Richmond  and  Alleghany  Railroad, 
near  Richmond,  produce  a  massive  gray  granite  used  for  gen- 
eral building  purposes,  paving  stone,  and  monumental  work, 
and  which  is  shipped  more  or  less  to  all  the  States  and  cities 


*  Geology  of  Vermont,  vol.  n.  1860,  p.  737. 
f  Geology  of  the  Virginias,  1884. 


212  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

south  of  New  England  and  as  far  west  as  Nebraska.  Much 
of  the  material  is  dressed  at  the  quarry,  polishing  works  being 
located  on  the  ground.  Other  quarries  in  Chesterfield  County 
produce  a  very  similar  stone,  the  principal  markets  of  which 
are  in  Richmond,  Washington,  Norfolk,  Lynchburgh,  and 
Philadelphia.  Important  quarries  are  also  located  at  Man- 
chester in  this  same  county.  Other  important  quarries  are  in 
the  Tuckahoe  district,  Henrico  County,  and  Namozine  dis- 
trict, Dinwiddie  County.  Stone  from  the  last  named  locality 
was  used  in  the  construction  of  the  post-office  and  custom 
house  at  Petersburgh,  Virginia.  The  most  important  building 
yet  constructed  of  the  Virginia  granites  is  the  State,  War,  and 
Navy  building  in  Washington.  This  is  probably  the  most 
elaborate  granite  structure  in  the  country.  Near  Fredericks- 
burgh  is  found  a  fine  light  gray  muscovite-biotite  granite  closely 
resembling  those  of  Hallowell,  Maine.,  and  Concord,  New 
Hampshire,  but  it  is  not  at  present  quarried  to  any  extent. 
The  granites  of  this  State  are,  as  a  rule,  fine-grained,  biotite- 
bearing  rocks,  and  of  a  light-gray  color,  and  correspond  in  a 
remarkable  degree  with  those  of  New  England. 

In  Amherst  and  Campbell  Counties,  near  Lynchburg, 
a  fine  blue-gray  biotite  gneiss  is  quarried  for  general  building 
purposes  in  the  towns  of  the  near  vicinity. 

At  Milan's  Gap,  in  Madison  County,  is  found  a  coarse  some- 
what porphyritic  granite  of  rather  unique  type,  and  which 
might  be  used  with  good  effect  in  certain  forms  of  ornamental 
work.  The  rock  consists  of  quartz,  a  dull  red  feldspar,  and 
compact  aggregates  of  dull  green  epidote.  The  effect  in  either 
rock-faced  or  polished  v/ork,  is  quite  pleasing.  The  same 
rock  is  stated  to  occur  in  the  Unaka  Mountains,  of  North  Caro- 
lina and  East  Tennessee,  and  is  hence  known  as  Unakyte* 

*  Dana,  Manual  of  Mineralogy  and  Lithology. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  21$ 

Wisconsin. — The  extensive  outcrops  of  granitic  rock  in  this 
State  have  been  scarcely  at  all  worked  up  to  the  present  time, 
owing  to  the  lack  of  transportation  facilities.  At  the  present 
writing  the  most  important  quarries  are  at  Montello,  Mar- 
quette  County,  and  Wausau,  Marathon  County.  The  Mon- 
tello rock  is  very  fine  grained,  compact,  and  of  a  dull  pink 
color.  Quarries  were  first  opened  here  to  furnish  paving  stones 
for  the  Chicago  market,  but  the  stone  has  since  been  used  to  a 
considerable  extent  for  general  building  and  monumental  work. 

According  to  Prof.  T.  C.  Chamberlain*  the  great  Lauren- 
tian  area  of  the  northern  part  of  the  State  is  occupied  largely 
by  granite  and  gneiss,  among  which  are  some  of  exceptional 
excellence.  Granitic  rocks  of  greater  or  less  excellence  crop 
out  along  the  upper  reaches  and  tributaries  of  the  Menominee, 
the  Peshtigo,  the  Oconto,  the  Wolf,  the  Wisconsin,  the  Yellow, 
the  Black,  the  Chippewa,  the  Flambeau,  the  Bad,  and  the 
Montreal  Rivers.  These  are  now  being  brought  within  the 
reach  of  cheap  transportation,  and  should  be  utilized  to  the 
mutual  benefit  of  those  who  work  and  those  who  use. 

Wyoming. — "  The  only  building  stone  which  is  quarried  in 
Wyoming  is  at  Sherman,  the  highest  point  of  the  Northern 
Pacific  Railroad.  At  this  point — the  summit  of  the  Black 
Hills — the  road  cuts  through  a  heavy  body  of  red  granite 
similar  to  the  Scotch,  but  with  much  larger  crystals."  This 
stone  has  been  used  to  some  extent  in  San  Francisco  and  Sacra- 
mento, but  is  hard  to  work,  owing  to  its  coarseness  and  lack 
of  tenacity.f 


*  Geology  of  Wisconsin,  vol.  I.  p.  66. 
f  Report  of  Tenth  Census,  vol.  x.  p.  278. 


214  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


(6)  FOREIGN   GRANITIC  ROCKS. 

Egypt. — Granite  of  Syene.  The  now  well-known  red  granite 
formerly  called  syenite,  from  near  Syene,  Egypt,  and  from 
which  was  constructed  the  numerous  obelisks  of  the  Egyptians, 
is  stated  to  have  been  brought  from  Upper  Egypt,  where  it 
occupies  large  tracts  between  the  first  cataract  of  the  Nile  and 
the  town  of  Assonan,  the  ancient  Syene.  It  was  quarried  by 
the  Egyptians  as  far  back  as  one  thousand  three  hundred  years 
before  the  Christian  era,  and  has  been  fashioned  into  obelisks, 
sarcophagi,  and  colossal  statues  innumerable.*  The  rock, 
which  is  very  coarse,  is  of  a  general  reddish  color  and  is  com- 
posed of  large  crystals  of  red  and  whitish  feldspars  intermixed 
with  clear,  glassy  quartz,  and  coal-black  mica  and  hornblende. 
Some  of  the  red  feldspars  are  very  large,  exceeding  an  inch  in 
length.  This  rock,  though  having  proved  very  durable  under 
Egyptian  skies,  possesses  in  itself  no  evident  powers  of  resist- 
ance over  thousands  of  other  granites  that  might  be  mentioned. 

BRITISH    PROVINCES   OF   NORTH    AMERICA. 

British  Columbia. — Gray  granite  of  good  quality  is  said  to 
have  been  obtained  in  considerable  quantity  from  the  large 
drift  bowlders  in  the  vicinity  of  Victoria.  Granite  occurs  on 
Nelson  Island  in  the  Jarvis  Inlet,  and  has  been  quarried  to  some 
extent.  The  Vancouver  market  is  said  to  be  supplied  with  an 
excellent  variety  of  gray  granite  from  the  North  Arm  of  Bur- 
rard  Inlet.f 

Canada. — Inexhaustible  quantities  of  light  gray  granite  are 

*See  Hull,  op.  cit.,  p.  51;  also  Gorringe's  "The  Egyptian  Obelisk,"  N.  Y. ; 
1882,  or  Journal  Geological  Society  of  London,  vol.  vn,  iSso-'si,  p.  9. 
f  Annual  Report  Geological  Survey  of  Canada, 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  21$ 

stated  *  to  occur  in  the  township  of  Stanstead,  just  north  of 
the  Vermont  line  in  the  Province  of  Quebec.  Other  quite  sim- 
ilar granites  occur  in  the  townships  traversed  by  the  Grand 
Trunk  Railway,  as  at  Barnston,  Barford  and  Hereford,  and 
many  localities  around  the  lakes  at  the  heads  of  the  St.  Francis 
and  Megantic  rivers.  Great  Megantic  Mountain  is  a  mass 
of  granite  covering  an  area  of  twelve  miles  in  the  townships  of 
Marston,  Hampden  and  Ditton.  A  beautiful  red  hornblendic 
granite  occurs  in  the  townships  of  Greenville,  Chatham  and 
Wentworth.  Hornblende  granite  is  also  found  on  Barrow  and 
other  islands  in  the  St.  Lawrence.  These  contain  less  horn- 
blende and  more  quartz  than  do  those  of  Grenville  and  are  said 
to  resemble  the  red  Scotch  granite  from  Aberdeen. 

Quarries  of  red  granite  are  also  worked  by  Canadian  com- 
panies at  Kingston  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Ontario  in  Ontario 
Province.  It  is  stated  that  blocks  of  large  size  can  be  obtained 
free  from  all  blemishes  and  flaws,  and  that  the  quantity  is  in- 
exhaustible. 

New  Brunswick. — In  the  vicinity  of  St.  George,  Kings 
County,  occurs  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  a  red  hornblendic 
intrusive  granite,  which  is  beginning  to  be  extensively  worked, 
and  which  has  been  introduced  into  the  markets  of  the  United 
States,  where  it  is  known  as  "  Bay  of  Fundy  granite."  In  text- 
ure the  rock  is  medium  coarse,  very  like  that  of  Calais  and  Jones- 
borough,  Maine,  from  which,  however,  it  differs  in  depth  of 
color  and  in  bearing  hornblende  in  place  of  mica.  It  is  tough 
and  compact,  takes  a  brilliant  polish,  and  is  apparently  durable. 
The  quarries  now  worked  are  situated  about  2^  miles  from  the 
town  of  St.  George,  where  the  rock  occurs  in  rugged  hills,  and 
of  varying  shades  of  color  from  deep  red  to  cream  color  or  gray, 
the  latter  colors  occurring  in  occasional  large  patches,  20  to  40 

*  Geology  of  Canada,  1863,  p.  810. 


2l6  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

feet  across,  and  of  indefinite  length.  The  quarries  are  opened 
along  the  hillside,  where  the  rock  is  very  conveniently  jointed 
for  getting  out  large  blocks.* 

Nova  Scotia. — Gray  mica-bearing  granites  of  apparently  ex- 
cellent quality,  and  varying  in  texture  from  medium  fine  and 
homogeneous  to  coarsely  porphyritic  are  quarried  at  Sheiburne, 
and  at  Purcell's  Cove,  in  Halifax  County.  These  are  exported 
to  some  extent  into  the  United  States. 

ENGLAND   AND   SCOTLAND. 

The  granites  brought  into  this  country  from  Scotland  are 
the  coarse  red  from  Peterhead,  and  the  gray  from  Aberdeen. 
Both  are  excellent  stones  and  are  used  very  largely  for  monu- 
mental work,  door-posts,  and  pillars  in  all  our  cities  and  towns. 
In  point  of  beauty  they  are  inferior  to  many  of  our  native 
granites,  but  their  well-established  reputation  will  probably 
cause  their  being  used  for  many  years  to  come.  The  Peter- 
head  granite  is  stated  f  to  weigh  165.9  pounds  per  cubic  foot, 
and  to  be  composed  of  quartz,  orthoclase,  albite,  and  black 
mica.  The  Aberdeen  granite  has  the  same  composition,  except- 
ing that  its  triclinic  feldspar  is  oligoclase  in  place  of  albite,  and 
there  is  sometimes  present  a  little  white  mica.  It  is  of  this 
latter  stone  that  the  city  of  Aberdeen  is  largely  built.  A  coarse 
gray  granite  with  large,  well-defined  porphyritic  crystals  of  pink 
orthoclase  is  also  imported  from  Shap,  in  northern  England. 
None  of  these  stones  have  any  exact  counterpart  among  the 
granites  of  this  country,  so  far  as  now  known. J 

*  Report  of  G.  F.  Mathew,  Geological  Survey  of  Canada,  i8y6-'77,  PP-  345~ 

349- 

f  Building  Construction,  p.  20. 

\  See  Harris'  Granites  and  our  Granite  Industries  (London,  Crosby,  Lock- 
wood  &  Co.,)  for  detailed  accounts  of  the  English,  Irish  and  Scotch  granites. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  2 1/ 


THE  PORPHYRIES,  OR  PORPHYRITIC  FELSITES. 

(l)  COMPOSITION  AND  ORIGIN. 

The  term  porphyry,  as  properly  used,  refers  simply  to  the 
structural  features  of  the  rock,  and  does  not  in  itself  alone  in- 
dicate any  particular  kind  of  stone.  It  denotes  that  through- 
out a  mass  of  rock  of  quite  even  texture  are  distributed 
numerous  crystals  of  a  mineral  which  having  been  the  first  to 
assume  crystalline  form,  on  the  cooling  of  a  molten  magma,  are 
larger  and  of  a  more  perfect  outline  than  those  which  formed 
subsequently.  This  structure  is  very  common  in  many  gran- 
ites, but  is  not  particularly  noticeable,  owing  to  the  coarse  crys- 
tallization of  the  stone  and  the  nearly  uniform  color  of  most 
of  the  constituents.  Occasionally,  as  in  the  well  known  Shap 
granite  from  Cumberland  in  northern  England,  the  large  por- 
phyritic  feldspars  are  of  a  flesh-red  color,  while  the  main  mass 
of  the  stone  is  but  gray,  or  pinkish,  and  the  contrast  is  there- 
fore very  striking. 

There  is,  however,  a  class  of  rocks,  in  which  the  mass  of 
the  rock,  the  groundmass,  as  it  is  technically  called,  is  so  dense 
and  compact  as  to  seem  practically  amorphous  or  non-crystal- 
line, and  in  which  are  imbedded  large,  scattering,  quite  per- 
fectly formed  crystals,  usually  of  quartz  or  feldspar.  These 
large  crystals  being  of  a  different  color  from  the  groundmass 
in  which  they  lie,  stand  out  in  marked  and  often  very  beauti- 
ful contrast.  It  is  to  rocks  of  this  nature  that  the  name  por- 
phyry has  in  times  past,  been  chiefly  applied.  According  to 
Hull*  the  name  was  originally  applied  to  certain  kinds  of 
igneous  rocks  of  reddish  or  purple  tints,  such  as  the  red  por- 
phyry of  Egypt.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  term  is  now  used 

*  Building  and  Ornamental  Stones,  p.  63 


2l8  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

mainly  in  its  adjective  sense,  since  any  kind  of  rock  may, 
under  certain  conditions  attending  crystallization,  assume  this 
structure.  We  thus  have  porphyrytic  granites,  diabases, 
diorites,  felsites  and  even  limestones.  Nevertheless  there  is  a 
group  of  igneous  rocks  closely  related  to  the  granites  in  chemi- 
cal composition,  in  which  this  structure  is  so  characteristically 
developed,  that  the  names  quartz  or  feldspar  porphyry -,  or  por- 
phyritic  felsite,  are  often  applied  to  the  entire  group. 

(2)   VARIETIES    OF   PORPHYRY. 

Accordingly  as  these  porphyries  vary  in  mineral  composi- 
tion they  are  divided  into  two  principal  varieties:  (i)  Quartz 
porphyry,  which  consists  of  the  fine-grained  groundmass  in 
which  quartz  alone  or  quartz  and  orthoclase  are  porphyritically 
developed,  and  (2)  quartz-free  or  orthoclase  porphyry,  in  which 
orthoclase  alone  prevails,  no  quartz  appearing  either  porphy- 
ritically or  in  the  groundmass.  This  last  variety,  it  will  be 
seen,  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  quartz  porphyries  as  does 
syenite  to  the  granites.  Through  an  entire  disappearance  of 
the  porphyritic  crystals,  the  rock  passes  into  felsite.  The  por- 
phyries bear  the  same  accessory  minerals  (hornblende,  mica, 
etc.),  as  do  the  granites,  but  these  are  usually  in  such  small 
particles  as  to  be  invisible  to  the  naked  eye. 

Porphyries,  like  granites,  are  of  a  variety  of  colors ;  red, 
purple,  gray,  green,  brown  and  black  of  a  variety  of  shades  are 
not  uncommon,  and  when,  as  is  so  often  the  case,  the  porphy- 
ritic minerals  contrast  in  color  in  a  marked  degree  with  the 
groundmass,  the  effect  on  a  polished  surface  is  very  beautiful. 

(3)   USE   OF  PORPHYRY. 

The  porphyries  are  as  a  rule  intensely  hard,  tough  and  with- 
out rift  or  grain.  As  a  consequence  they  are  scarcely  at 'all 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  2 19 

used  in  this  country,  although  among  the  most  beautiful  and 
indestructible  of  our  rocks.  The  celebrated  porphyries  of  Elf- 
dalen,  Sweden,  are  wrought  into  a  variety  of  objects  of  art, 
and  with  exceedingly  beautiful  effects.  Visitors  at  the  Cen- 
tennial Exposition  in  Philadelphia  will  recall  the  beautiful 
large  column  and  inlaid  table  of  this  stone  that  were  there 
displayed. 

(4)    PORPHYRIES    OF    THE  VARIOUS     STATES    AND 
TERRITORIES. 

Inexhaustible  quantities  of  porphyries  of  a  variety  of  colors 
and  great  beauty  occur  at  Saugus,  Maiden,  Lynn  and  Marble- 
head,  and  other  localities  in  eastern  Massachusetts,  but  which 
have  never  been  utilized  to  any  extent  owing  to  the  cost  of  work- 
ing. Many  of  these  are  of  exceptional  beauty,  presenting  colors 
red  as  jasper,  through  all  shades  of  pink,  gray  and  even  black, 
often  beautifully  variegated  and  brecciated  in  a  variety  of 
colors.  Flow  structures  caused  by  the  onward  flowing  of  the 
rock  while  in  a  partially  cooled  condition  often  gives  rise  to  a 
beautiful  banding  and  interweaving  of  colors  impossible  to  de- 
cribe,  and  which  must  be  seen  to  be  appreciated.  The  strik- 
ing beauty  of  this  flow  structure  is  sometimes  heightened  by 
the  presence  of  angular  fragments  of  variously  colored  por- 
tions of  the  rock,  which,  becoming  broken  from  the  parent 
mass,  have  been  imbedded  in  a  matrix  of  quite  different  color, 
as  at  Hingham,  where  the  writer  has  found  bright  red  frag- 
ments imbedded  in  a  yellowish  paste.  The  rock  acquires  a 
beautiful  polish,  and  the  fact  that  it  has  not  ere  this  come  into 
more  general  use  is  a  sad  comment  upon  the  taste  of  our 
wealthier  citizens.  Nearly  as  indestructible  as  glass,  and  as 
beautiful  as  an  agate,  it  is  yet  almost  wholly  ignored  except 
for  purposes  of  rough  construction. 


22O  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

A  large  variety  of  porphyries,  varying  in  color  from  black 
to  red,  occurs  also  in  New  Hampshire,  particularly  near  Water- 
vine,  some  of  which  would  make  fine  ornamental  stones.  At 
Franconia,  in  the  White  Mountains,  there  occurs  a  porphyry 
conglomerate  formed  of  fragments  of  jasper-red  porphyry 
closely  cemented  into  a  compact  rock,  which  is  particularly 
beautiful. 

Porphyries  are  abundant  in  many  other  States,  but  are 
scarcely  at  all  used.  Maine,  Pennsylvania,  Missouri,  Minnesota, 
and  Wisconsin  all  contain  good  material,  though,  as  little  or 
no  search  has  been  made  for  the  highly  ornamental  varieties, 
it  is  impossible  to  say  what  they  can  produce. 

At  Green  Lake,  in  the  last  named  State,  there  occurs  a 
beautiful  stone  of  this  class,  almost  black  in  color,  with  white 
porphyritic  feldspars.  It  has  been  quarried  to  some  extent 
near  the  town  of  Uttny,  and  polished  columns  of  it  may  be 
seen  in  the  German-American  Bank  Building  and  Union  Depot 
at  Saint  Paul,  Minnesota.  It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  no 
economic  method  of  working  so  beautiful  and  durable  material 
has  as  yet  been  discovered. 

Near  Charlotte,  in  Mecklenburgh  County,  N.  C,  there  oc- 
curs a  very  light  colored,  almost  white,  quartz  porphyry,  which 
is  penetrated  by  long  parallel  streaks  or  pencils  of  a  dead  black 
color.  These  are  so  arranged  that,  when  cut  across,  the  sur- 
face appears  studded  thickly  with  roundish  and  very  irregular 
black  points  of  all  sizes  up  to  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  Cut 
parallel  with  the  direction  of  the  pencils,  the  surface  is  streaked 
with  black  lines,  which  sometimes  assume  beautiful  fern-like 
or  dendritic  forms. 

The  rock  is  intensely  hard,  tough  and  without  definite  rift. 
It  can  therefore  be  worked  only  at  great  cost,  and  is  not  regu- 
larly quarried.  It  has  been  used  only  locally  for  rough  pur- 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  221 

poses,  as  for  curbing,  steps  and  sills.     An  analysis  of  this  rock 
is  given  in  the  tables. 

A  deep  reddish  quartz  porphyry,  somewhat  resembling  the 
Egyptian  red  porphyry,  has  been  reported  by  the  United 
States  geologists  as  occurring  near  the  Great  Bend  of  the 
Carson  River  in  Nevada. 

(5)  FOREIGN   QUARTZ  PORPHYRIES. 

Russia. — From  the  Isle  of  Hoghland,  in  the  Gulf  of  Fin- 
land, the  National  Museum  has  received  a  variety  of  quartz  por- 
phyries. These  have  mostly  a  dull  red,  very  compact  base,  and 
carry  large,  nearly  white,  pinkish  or  reddish  feldspars  and  glassy 
quartz  in  great  profusion.  The  rocks  acquire  a  good  surface 
and  polish,  but  are  intensely  hard.  Other  porphyritic  and  com- 
pact rocks,  variously  called  diorites,  keratites  and  porphyries, 
were  received  from  the  district  of  Katharinenburg,  in  the 
Urals,  as  noted  in  the  published  catalogue  of  the  collections. 


THE    LIPARITES. 

(l)   ADAPTABILITY   FOR   CONSTRUCTIVE   PURPOSES. 

Tertiary  and  post-Tertiary  rocks  of  any  kind  are  at  present 
very  little  used  for  constructive  purposes  in  the  United  States, 
owing,  in  the  case  of  fragmental  rocks,  to  their  state  of  imper- 
fect consolidation  and  consequent  feeble  tenacity,  and  in  the 
case  of  eruptives  to  their  almost  entire  absence  in  those  por- 
tions of  the  country  that  have  become  permanently  settled,  and 
where  as  a  consequence  there  has  arisen  a  demand  for  a  more 
durable  building  material  than  wood.  Of  the  eruptive  rocks 
of  this  class  only  the  liparites,  andesites,  and  basalts  have  been 


222  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

at  all  utilized,  and  these  to  but  a  small  extent.  Their  textures 
are,  as  a  rule,  such  as  to  fit  them  only  for  the  rougher  kinds  of 
construction,  since,  with  the  exception  of  the  glassy  varieties, 
they  will  not  polish,  and  their  rough  appearance  unfits  them 
for  any  kind  of  interior  decorative  work. 


(2)   MINERAL  AND   CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION   OF  LIPARITE. 

Under  the  head  of  liparites  are  classed  those  acid  eruptive 
rocks  or  lavas  consisting  chiefly  of  quartz  and  sanidin  (the 
glassy  variety  of  orthoclase)  which  are  not  older  than  Tertiary 
and  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  younger  effusive  equivalents 
of  the  granites,  quartz  porphyries,  and  felsite  pitchstones. 

In  texture  they  vary  from  coarsely  granitoid  rocks,  entirely 
crystalline  throughout,  through  all  intermediate  felsitic  stages 
to  clear  glassy  forms.  Structurally  they  vary  from  fine,  com- 
pact, even-grained  to  coarsely  porphyritic,  vesicular,  and  sphe- 
rulitic  forms ;  well  marked  fluidal  structure  is  common.  The 
prevailing  colors  are  chalky  white  to  dark  gray ;  more  rarely 
greenish,  brownish,  yellowish,  and  reddish  varieties  occur. 

The  average  chemical  composition  of  liparite  (quartz-tra- 
chyte) as  given  by  Zirkel  is  silica,  76.36;  alumina,  11.97  ;  iron 
oxides,  2.01  ;  lime,  1.09;  magnesia,  0.56;  potash,  3.70;  soda, 
4.53.  Specific  gravity,  2.55. 


(3)   VARIETIES   OF  LIPARITE. 

According  as  they  are  crystalline  throughout,  felsitic  and 
porphyritic  or  entirely  glassy,  liparites  are  classed  as  (i)  gran- 
itic liparites  or  nevadites,  (2)  rhyolites,  and  (3)  glassy  liparites 
as  obsidian,  pumice,  pear  lite,  w\&  pitchstone.  Of  these  only  the 
felsitic  and  porphyritic  variety  rhyolite  is  as  yet  quarried. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  22$ 


(4)    LIPARITES    OF    THE  VARIOUS    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 

Near  the  Mokelumne  Hills,  in  Calaveras  County,  Califor- 
nia, rhyolite  occurs  in  several  different  colors,  and  has  been 
quarried  to  some  extent  for  use  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  The 
rock  is  also  abundant  in  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Nevada,  Utah, 
Montana,  and  other  of  the  Western  States  and  Territories. 

The  glassy  variety  of  rhyolite  called  obsidian  is  very  abun- 
dant in  certain  parts  of  the  West,  and  though  as  yet  no 
attempt  has  been  made  to  utilize  the  material  there  would 
seem  no  good  reason  for  its  not  being  used  in  small  pieces  for 
the  finer  kinds  of  decorative  work.  The  rock,  which  is  a 
natural  glass  formed  by  the  rapid  cooling  of  a  molten  magma, 
is  of  various  colors,  black,  red,  and  greenish,  and  often  beauti- 
fully spotted  and  streaked. 

The  National  collections  show  from  the  Yellowstone 
National  Park,  Glass  Butte,  Oregon,  and  other  sources  speci- 
mens of  red  obsidian  spotted  and  streaked  with  black  wavy 
lines  in  a  way  that  is  highly  ornamental.  The  stone  occurs 
naturally  in  a  badly  jointed  condition,  and  could  be  obtained 
only  in  pieces  of  small  size.  Owing  to  its  glassy  fracture  also 
it  could  be  worked  only  with  plain  flat  or  rounded  surfaces ; 
but,  as  it  takes  a  high  glass-like  polish,  it  would  be  very  desir- 
able for  tops  of  small  stands,  paper  weights,  and  inlaid  work. 

THE   SYENITES,   TRACHYTES,    AND   PHONOLITES. 

(l)   DEFINITION  OF   SYENITE. 

Under  the  name  of  Syenites  are  here  included  those  rocks 
consisting  essentially  of  orthoclase  with  or  without  one  or 
more  of  the  accessory  minerals,  mica,  hornblende,  or  augite. 


224  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

They  differ  from  granites  only  in  the  absence  of  quartz,  and 
otherwise  present  a  precisely  parallel  series.  Thus  we  may 
have  mica  syenite  (minette),  hornblende  syenite,  augite  syen- 
ite, etc.* 

(2)  LOCALITIES  OF  SYENITE. 

At  the  present  time  syenites  are  but  little  quarried  in  this 
country,  though  there  would  seem  to  be  no  lack  of  material 
and  of  good  quality. 

In  and  about  Portland,  Maine,  there  occur  in  the  glacial 
drift  many  bowlders  of  a  beautiful  syenite,  the  exact  source  of 
which  is  not  known  to  the  author,  but  which  can  not  be  far  to 
the  northward.  The  rock  consists  mainly  of  bright  lustrous 
gray  orthoclase  and  coal-black  hornblende,  with  occasionally  a 
little  black  mica.  In  texture  it  is  not  too  coarse,  and  the  con- 
trast of  colors  such  that  one  can  scarcely  imagine  a  more  beauti- 
ful stone  for  rock- faced  work.  It  is  very  tough,  and,  to  judge 
from  the  bowlders,  is  also  very  durable,  and  not  at  all  liable  to 
discoloration  on  exposure. 

Hawes  f  describes  augite  syenites  as  occurring  in  Jackson, 
Columbia,  and  on  Little  Ascuntney  Mountain,  in  New  Ham- 
shire;  also  hornblende  syenites  as  occurring  at  Red  Hill  and 
Moultonborough,  Columbia,  Sandwich,  Stark,  and  Albany,  in 


*  Formerly  it  was  customary  to  call  by  the  name  syenite  a  rock  consisting  of 
quartz,  hornblende,  and  orthoclase,  or  what  is  now  called  a  hornblende  granite. 
The  name  takes  its  origin  from  Syene,  Egypt,  where  a  rock  supposed  to  answer 
this  description  was  originally  quarried.  Investigation  has,  however,  shown 
that  the  Syene  rock  contains  more  mica  than  hornblende,  and  hence  at  best  can 
not  be  classed  as  a  true  syenite  even  according  to  the  old  definition.  Accord- 
ing to  recent  lithologists  the  Syene  rock  is  a  hornblende  mica  granite,  while 
true  sye-nite,  as  above  stated,  is  a  quartzless  rock. 

f  Geology  of  New  Hampshire,  vol.  in.  part  iv 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  22$ 

the  same  State.  Dr.  Wadsworth  *  also  mentions  a  syenite  as 
occurring  in  eastern  Massachusetts,  where  it  occupies  a  large 
proportion  of  the  coast  line  between  Salem  and  Manchester. 
None  of  these  are  as  yet  quarried. 

Near  Hot  springs,  in  Arkansas,  there  is  quarried  under  the 
name  of  granite  a  tough  gray  rock  of  variable  texture,  consist- 
ing mainly  of  hornblende  and  elaeolite,  and  which  would  there- 
fore be  classed  as  an  elaeolite  syenite.  Some  portions  of  the 
rock,  as  shown  by  the  large  block  in  the  National  collection, 
are  fine-grained  and  homogeneous,  while  in  others  the  elaeolite 
crystals  reach  some  2  or  3  inches  in  length.  The  appearance  of 
the  stone  is  excellent,  but  portions  of  it  contain  a  large  amount 
of  pyrite  and  it  needs  to  be  selected  with  care  if  designed  for 
exterior  or  highly  ornamental  work. 

According  to  Professor  Brannerf  these  syenites  occur  in  the 
vicinity  of  Little  Rock  where  they  form  the  Fourche  Moun- 
tains, to  the  south-west  of  that  city  in  Saline  County,  and  at 
Magnet  Cove  on  the  Hot  Springs  Railroad  in  Hot  Springs 
County.  In  the  Little  Rock  district  are  found  both  blue-gray 
and  light-gray,  as  well  as  several  intermediate  varieties. 

Both  varieties  have  been  used  more  or  less,  but  it  is  only 
within  the  last  two  years  that  they  can  be  said  to  have  been 
put  upon  the  market.  The  syenites  of  both  the  Little  Rock  and 
and  Magnet  Cove  regions  are  intrusive,  having  penetrated 
rocks  of  Lower  Carboniferous  age ;  whether  those  in  Saline 
County  are  contemporaneous  with  the  others  is  not  as  yet  known 
but  it  seems  probable  that  they  are.  The  blue  beds  of  the 
Fourche  Mountains  are  all,  so  far  as  they  have  been  uncovered, 
more  or  less  jointed  so  that  the  rock  comes  out  in  angular 
masses  of  all  sizes,  many  of  them  being  much  too  large  to  be 

*  Geological  Magazine,  May,  1885,  p.  207. 
f  Stone,  Oct.,  1889. 


226  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

handled.  These  masses,  however,  are  perfectly  solid  and  hom- 
ogeneous. The  blue-gray  variety  is  now  extensively  used  for 
street  paving  as  well  as  for  architectural  purposes.  It  is  one 
of  the  best  and  handsomest  of  building  stones,  its  colors  making 
a  pleasing  contrast  with  other  stones  and  bricks.  The  county 
Court-house  and  the  fronts  of  most  of  the  new  business  blocks 
in  Little  Rock  are  built  of  this  stone.  The  light-gray  variety 
usually  occurs  in  extensive  massive  beds  from  which  blocks  of 
any  desired  size  can  'be  quarried.  These  rocks  cover  an  area 
of  many  square  miles,  and  there  is  no  possibility  of  the  beds 
ever  becoming  exhausted.  They  are  moreover  convenient  to 
railway  transportation,  being  cut  by  the  Iron  Mountain  Rail- 
way near  Little  Rock,  while  the  Diamond  Jo  quarry  in  the 
Magnet  Cove  area  is  within  a  thousand  feet  of  the  Hot  Springs 
Railway. 

The  cathedral  in  Little  Rock  is  of  the  light-gray  variety, 
which  has  also  been  employed  in  many  minor  structures. 

A  syenitic  rock  bearing  abundant  elaeolite  and  frequently 
cancrinite  and  sodalite,  and  which  must,  therefore,  also  be 
classed  as  an  elaeolite  syenite  occurs  abundantly  in  the  vicinity 
of  Litchfield,  Maine,  and  specimens  of  the  rock  have  found 
their  way  into  the  building-stone  collections  of  the  National 
Museum.  An  examination  of  the  rock  does  not,  however, 
impress  one  particularly  in  its  favor.  Its  durability  is,  to  say 
the  least,  doubtful,  and  its  varying  texture  and  colors  rather 
against  it. 

(3)  THE  TRACHYTES   AND    PHONOLITES. 

Under  the  name  of  trachytes  are  comprehended  by  Rosen- 
busch  those  massive  Tertiary  and  post-Tertiary  volcanic  rocks 
consisting  essentially  of  sanidin  and  hornblende,  augite  or 
black  mica,  and  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  younger  equiva- 
lents of  the  syenites,  and  quartz  free  porphyries. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  22/ 

The  average  chemical  composition  is  silica,  63.55$  5  alumma, 
1 8.0$;  iron  oxide,  6.15$;  lime,  1.96$;  magnesia,  0.88$.  Spe- 
cific gravity,  2.65. 

In  structure  trachytes  are  rarely  granular,  but  usually 
possess  a  fine  scaly  ormicro-felsitic  groundmass,  rendered  por- 
phyritic  by  the  development  of  scattering  crystals  of  sanidin, 
hornblende,  augite,  or  black  mica.  The  texture  is  porous  and 
possesses  a  characteristic  roughness  to  the  touch  ;  hence  its  name 
from  the  Greek  word  rpaxvZ  rough.  The  prevailing  colors  are 
gray,  yellowish  or  reddish.  They  may  be  divided  into  horn- 
blende, biotite,  or  augite  trachytes,  according  as  either  of  these 
accessory  minerals  predominates. 

Phonolites  differ  from  trachytes  in  carrying  one  or  both  of 
the  minerals  nepheline  or  leucite  in  addition  to  the  other  con- 
stituents named.  They  bear  the  same  relations  then  to  the 
trachytes  as  do  the  elaeolite  syenites  to  the  syenites  proper. 

Neither  trachytes  nor  phonolites  are,  so  far  as  now  known, 
common  rocks  in  the  United  States.  Zirkel*  describes  numer- 
ous trachytes  from  the  areas  covered  by  the  Fortieth  Parallel 
survey,  and  Caswell  f  describes  both  trachytes  and  phonolites 
from  the  Black  Hills,  Dakota.  Recent  investigations  by 
Wadsworth^;  and  Messrs.  Hague  and  Iddings  §  show,  however, 
that  the  supposed  trachytes  of  Zirkel  were  in  large  part  if  not 
altogether  andesites,  and  it  is  very  probable  that  similar  tests 
applied  to  many  other  cases  heretofore  described  would  be 
productive  of  similar  results.  However  this  maybe,  the  utility 
of  the  rocks  in  America  is  purely  prospective. 

Their  colors  and  textures  are  such  that  they  can  never  be 

*  Microscopic  Petrography  of  the  Fortieth  Parallel, 
f  Geology  of  the  Black  Hills  of  Dakota. 

\  Proceedings  Boston  Society  Natural  History,  vol.  xxi.  1881,  p.   243,  and 
vol.  xxu.  1883,  p.  412. 

§  American  Journal  Science,  vol.   xxvi.  1884,  p.  453, 


228  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

used  for  other  purposes  than  rough  construction,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  majority  of  the  younger  eruptives. 

AUGITE     (ENSTATITE,     HYPERSTHENE)     PLAGIOCLASE 

ROCKS. 

(l)   DIABASE. 

Diabase,  from  the  Greek  word  diafiavis  to  pass  over  ;  so 
called  because  the  rock  passes  by  imperceptible  gradations  into 
diorite. 

The  diabases  are  crystalline  granular  rocks,  composed 
essentially  of  plagioclase  feldspar  and  augite,  or  a  rhombic 
pyroxene,  with  nearly  always  magnetite  and  frequently  olivine. 
Geologically  they  are  pre-Tertiary  eruptive  rocks,  basic  in 
composition,  occurring  in  dikes,  intruded  sheets  and  bosses. 
In  structure  they  are  as  a  rule  massive,  but  schistose  varieties 
occur  and  more  rarely  spherulitic  forms.  The  texture  is  as  a 
rule  fine,  compact,  and  homogeneous,  though  sometimes  por- 
phyritic  or  amygdaloidal.  The  colors  are  somber,  varying  from 
greenish  through  dark  gray  to  nearly  black,  or  sometimes  black 
when  freshly  quarried,  but  becoming  greenish  on  drying.* 

According  to  Zirkel,  the  average  chemical  composition  of 
diabase  is  as  follows  : 

Per  cent. 

Silica 49.54 

Alumina 14.05 

Iron  protoxide 14.27 

Lime , 8.20 

Magnesia 5.28 

Potash 1.16 

Soda 3.88 

Water 2.29 

*  Mr.  J .  P.  Iddings  suggests  that  the  change  in  color  from  dark  blue  black, 
to  greenish,  as  noticed  in  diabase  of  New  Jersey,  is  due  to  the  drying  of  the 
serpentine  or  chlorite,  which  results  from  the  alteration  of  the  included  olivine. 
(American  Journal  of  Science,  May,  1886,  p.  330. 


STOKES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  229 

Average  specific  gravity,  2.8,  which  is  equal  to  a  weight  of 
175  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

In  classification  two  principal  varieties  of  diabase  are  recog- 
nized, the  distinction  being  founded  upon  the  presence  or 
absence  of  the  mineral  olivine.  We  thus  have  (i)  olivine 
diabase,  or  diabase  with  olivine,  and  (2)  diabase  proper,  or 
diabase  without  olivine.  Owing  to  its  lack  of  definite  rift,  com- 
pact texture,  and  hardness,  diabase  can,  as  a  rule,  be  worked 
only  with  difficulty  and  usually  at  a  cost  considerably  greater 
than  that  of  granite.  It  is  therefore  not  extensively  quarried, 
though  of  late  years  it  has  come  into  more  general  use  for 
paving  purposes,  and  still  more  recently  for  building  and  monu- 
mental work.  The  green  antique  porphyry  or  Marmor  Lacedce- 
monium  viride,  formerly  much  used  for  pavements  and  general 
inlaid  decorative  work  in  Greece  and  Rome,  is  according  to 
Delesse,  a  diabase  consisting  of  large  greenish  crystals  of 
labradorite  embedded  in  a  fine  compact  groundmass  of  the 
same  feldspar,  together  with  augite  and  titaniferous  iron.  The 
quarries  from  which  the  stone  was  taken  are  stated  by  Hull  to 
be  situated  between  Sparta  and  Marathon,  in  Greece.  A  stone 
of  a  similar  character  and  closely  resembling  it  in  color  and 
structure  is  abundant  among  the  drift  bowlders  of  eastern 
Massachusetts,  but  its  exact  derivation  is  unknown. 

In  the  eastern  United  States  the  dikes  and  sheets  of  dia- 
base are  frequently  associated  with  deposits  of  red  or  brown 
Triassic  sandstone,  which  are  also  extensively  quarried,  as  wift 
be  noticed  further  on.  Concerning  these  dikes  Professor  Dana 
writes  :*. 

"  It  is  remarkable  that  these  fractures  (through  which  the 
diabase  was  forced  to  the  surface)  should  have  taken  place  in 

*  Manual  of  Geology,  third  edition,  p.  417. 


230  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

great  numbers  just  where  the  Triassic  beds  exist,  and  only 
sparingly  east  or  west  of  them  ;  and  also  that  the  igneous  rock 
should  be  essentially  the  same  throughout  the  thousands  of 
miles  from  Nova  Scotia  to  North  Carolina.  The  igneous  and 
aqueous  rocks  (sandstone)  are  so  associated  that  they  neces- 
sarily come  into  the  same  history.  Mount  Tom  and  Mount 
Holyoke,  of  Massachusetts,  are  examples  of  these  trap  ridges  ; 
also  East  Rock  and  West  Rock,  near  New  Haven,  and  the 
Hanging  Hills,  near  Meriden,  in  Connecticut  ;  the  Palisades 
along  the  Hudson  River,  in  New  York ;  Bergen  Hill  and  other 
elevations  in  New  Jersey. 

"  In  Nova  Scotia  trap  ridges  skirt  the  whole  red  sandstone 
region  and  face  directly  the  Bay  of  Fundy  ;  Cape  Blomidon, 
noted  for  its  zeolitic  minerals,  lies  at  its  northern  extremity  on 
the  Bay  of  Mines. 

"  In  Connecticut  the  ridges  and  dikes  are  extremely  numer- 
ous, showing  avast  amount  of  igneous  action.  .  .  .  They  com- 
mence near  Long  Island  Sound,  at  New  Haven,  where  they 
form  some  bold  eminences,  and  extend  through  the  State  and 
nearly  to  the  northern  boundary  of  Massachusetts.  Mounts 
Holyoke  and  Tom  are  in  the  system.  The  general  course  is 
parallel  to  that  of  the  Green  Mountains. 

"  Although  the  greater  part  of  the  dikes  is  confined  to  the 
sandstone  regions,  there  are  a  few  outside,  intersecting  the 
crystalline  rocks  and  following  the  same  direction,  and  part,  at 
least,  of  the  same  system. 

"  Even  the  little  Southbury  Triassic  region,  lying  isolated 
in  western  Connecticut,  has  a  large  number  of  trap  ridges,  and 
such  a  group  of  them  as  occurs  nowhere  else  in  New  England 
outside  of  the  Triassic.  Their  direction  and  positions  in  over- 
lapping series  are  the  same  as  in  the  Connecticut  valley. 

"The  trap  usually  forms  hills  with  a  bold  columnar  front 
and  sloping  back.  When  nearly  north  and  south  in  direction 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  23! 

the  bold  front  is  to  the  westward  in  the  Connecticut  Valley, 
and  to  the  eastward  in  New  Jersey.  It  has  come  up  through 
fissures  in  the  sandstone,  which  varied  from  a  few  inches  to 
300  feet  or  more  in  breadth.  In  many  cases  it  has  made  its 
way  out  by  opening  the  layers  of  sandstone,  and  in  such  cases 
it  stands  with  a  bold  front,  facing  in  the  direction  toward 
which  it  thus  ascended." 

Connecticut. — The  extensive  diabase  outcrops  noted  above 
as  occurring  at  East  and  West  Rocks,  north  of  New  Haven  in 
this  State,  are  quarried  for  foundation  walls  and  for.  paving 
purposes  in  the  near  vicinity.  The  rock  is  too  dull  in  color  for 
ornamental  work. 

Maine. — Diabase  is  quarried  at  three  localities  in  this  State, 
Addison,  Vinalhaven,  and  Tenant's  Harbor.  At  Addison  the 
rock  occurs  in  extensive  outcrops  close  by  the  water's  edge. 
Single  blocks  66  by  10  by  20  feet  have  been  moved  in  the 
quarries,  and  natural  blocks  90  by  10  by  15  feet  occur.  The 
chief  defects  in  the  stone  are  said  to  be  the  so-called  "knots," 
which  consist  of  irregular  patches  of  coarse  feldspar  and  dark 
crystals  of  hornblende.  There  are  also  occasional  seams,  caus- 
ing the  rock  to  split  unfavorably.  The  rock  is  moderately 
fine-grained,  very  dark  gray,  sometimes  almost  black  or  spotted 
black  and  white  on  a  polished  surface  and  of  a  fine  appearance. 
It  has  been  used  in  the  walls  inclosing  the  Capitol  grounds  at 
Washington,  in  the  construction  of  a  bank  at  Montreal,  and  is 
quite  generally  used  for  monuments  in  Boston,  New  York, 
Brooklyn,  Washington,  Montreal,  and  Quebec.  The  Vinal- 
haven diabase  is  less  extensively  worked  on  account  of  its 
hardness.  It  is  of  finer  grain  than  the  Addison  stone  and 
uniformly  dark-gray,  nearly  black  in  color.  It  is  used  to  some 
extent  for  building  material  and  also  in  cemetery  work.  The 
Tenant's  Harbor  (St.  George,  Knox  County)  stone  closely 
resembles  that  of  Addison,  and  is  used  for  similar  purposes. 


232  STOATES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


These  are  all  most  excellent  stones,  and  it  is  a  matter  for  con- 
gratulation that  they  are  being  so  extensively  introduced,  and, 
to  some  extent,  replacing  the  marbles  in  monumental  work. 
The  cost  of  working  is,  owing  to  their  compact  structure, 
somewhat  greater  than  that  of  granite,  but  the  results  fully 
justify  the  increased  outlay.  All  the  above,  it  should  be  noted 
are  known  commercially  as  black  granite.* 

Massachusetts. — Diabase  is  quarried  for  foundations  walls, 
general  constructive  purposes,  and  monumental  work,  at  Med- 
ford  aad  Somerville  in  this  State.  The  stone  from  these  local- 
ities is  coarser,  lighter  in  color,  and  much  inferior  in  point  of 
beauty  to  that  just  described. 

Missouri. — Intrusive  masses  of  diabase  occur  at  various 
points  in  the  southeastern  part  of  this  State,  particularly  in 
Madison  County.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  quarry  the 
material  from  outcrops  near  Mine  La  Motte  Station  at  Skrain- 
ka,  but  the  works  are  no  longer  in  operation.  The  rock  is 
stated  to  be  covered  with  from  ten  to  thirty  feet  of  stripping 
and  to  have  been  so  violently  contorted  and  broken  that  it  is 
impossible  to  quarry  dimension  stone  from  it.  It  is  fine  grain- 
ed dark  gray  to  almost  black  in  color,  splits  and  dresses  easily, 
and  takes  an  excellent  polish,  but  cannot  be  utilized  for  mon- 
umental purposes  for  reasons  above  noted.  Up  to  date  it  has 
been  used  mainly  in  the  manufacture  of  paving  blocks. f 

New  Jersey. — The  extensive  outcrops  of  diabase,  or  "trap 


*  It  should  be  remarked  that  all  of  these  diabases  differ  radically  in  structure 
and  composition  from  any  others  here  mentioned,  and  deserve  a  more  thorough 
and  careful  study  than  they  have  yet  received.  All  contain  a  rhombic  pyroxene 
pleochroic  in  red,  green,  and  brown  colors,  and  which  is  evidently  hypersthene, 
while  certain  sections  of  the  Addison  rock  show  a  pyroxenic  constituent  carry- 
ing an  abundance  of  the  rhombic  inclosures  so  characteristic  of  entstatite. 
Prof.  Rosenbusch  in  his  recent  work  includes  this  rock  with  the  gabbros. 

f  Bulletin  No.  I  Missouri  Geological  Survey,    1890,  p.  42. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  233 

rock,"  known  as  the  Palisades  of  the  Hudson  River,  in  north- 
eastern New  Jersey,  furnish  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  this 
material,  and  which  is  at  present  quite  extensively  quarried 
about  Guttenberg,  Weehawken,  west  New  York,  and  south- 
ward along  the  Palisades  as  far  as  Montgomery  Avenue  in 
Jersey  City.  The  rock  is  used  chiefly  for  paving,  and  the  quar- 
ries are  small  affairs  worked  by  gangs  of  from  two  to  five  men. 
Two  sizes  of  blocks  are  prepared.  The  larger,  which  are 
known  as  specification  blocks,  are  4  by  8  or  10  inches  on  the 
head  and  7  to  8  inches  deep.  The  second  size,  which  are 
called  square  blocks,  are  5  to  6  inches  square  and  6  to  7  inches 
deep.  The  specification  blocks  bring  about  $30  per  thousand 
in  the  market,  and  the  square  only  about  $20  per  thousand. 
It  is  estimated  that  some  4,000,000  of  the  specification  and 
1,000,000  of  the  square  blocks  were  quarried  in  1887,  valued 
at  $140,000. 

There  are  three  principal  grades  of  the  rock  quarried.  A 
fine-grained  variety  at  Mount  Pleasant,  a  rocky  hill  north  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  ;  a  light-gray  variety  at  Bergen  Cut, 
south  of  the  railroad  ;  and  a  dark,  almost  black,  variety  at 
Weehawken  and  West  New  York.  Other  quarries  cf  this 
rock  are  worked  at  Orange  Mountain  ;  Snake  Hill,  Hudson 
County,  and  at  Morris  Hill  in  Paterson.  In  the  western  part 
of  the  State  the  outcrops  are  not  so  extensive,  but  quarries 
are  worked  at  Rocky  Hill,  near  Titusville,  Smith's  Hill,  and 
near  Lambertville.  At  Rock  Church,  4  miles  from  Lambert- 
ville,  the  rock  is  quarried  and  used  for  monumental  work  as 
well  as  for  general  building  purposes,  being  put  upon  the 
market  under  the  name  of  black  granite.  The  rock  from  the 
Palisade  quarries  has  also  been  quite  extensively  used  in  and 
about  Jersey  City  for  building  purposes.  St.  Patrick's  Cathe- 
dral, and  the  Hudson  County  Court-house,  as  well  as  many 
private  buildings,  are  of  this  stone,  but  the  effect  as  a  whole  is 


234  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

not  pleasing,  owing  to  the  sombre  colors  of  the  material. 
Employed  in  connection  with  brick  or  lighter  stone,  to  give 
variety  and  contrast,  the  effect  is  admirable. 

The  finely  broken  stone  is  also  used  very  extensively  for 
railroad  ballast  and  road-making.  Several  of  the  quarries  near 
Orange  Mountain  have  machines  for  breaking  up  the  stone  for 
this  purpose.* 

Pennsylvania. — The  principal  quarries  of  diabase  in  this 
State  are  at  Collins  Station,  Lancaster  County,  and  near  York 
Haven,  York  County.  At  the  latter  place  the  face  of  the 
quarries  is  about  70  feet  in  height.  The  rock  lies  in  huge 
natural  blocks  sometimes  weighing  hundreds  of  tons  and  having 
curved  outlines  giving  them  a  sort  of  oval  shape.  Stone  from 
this  quarry  is  used  only  by  the  Northern  Central  Railroad  in 
the  construction  of  bridges  and  culverts. 

At  Collins  Station  diabase  is  more  extensively  quarried  than 
at  any  other  locality  in  the  State.  The  stone  is  used  for  all 
manner  of  building  purposes  and  monumental  work.  The 
foundation  of  the  new  Harrisburg  Post-office  and  the  Soldiers' 
Monument  in  this  city  are  from  this  material. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Gettysburg  diabase  is  quite  extensively 
quarried,  and  has  been  used  for  head-stones  in  the  national 
cemetery  at  this  place.  It  is  also  used  for  general  building 
being  put  on  the  market  under  the  name  of  Gettysburg 
granite. 

Virginia. — As  in  the  States  to  the  east  and  north,  the 
Triassic  beds  of  Virginia  are  cut  by  large  dikes  of  "  trap  "  or 
diabase,  and  which  in  some  cases  are  capable  of  affording 
excellent  material  for  paving  blocks  and  general  building  and 
ornamental  work.  So  .far  as  the  author  is  aware  quarries  have 
been  opened  upon  these  dikes  in  but  two  localities,  at  Cedar 

*  See  Annual  Report  State  Geologist  of  New  Jersey,  1881,  pp.  60-63. 


S7*ONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  235 

Run,  ^ear  Catlett's  Station  on  the  Virginia  Midland  Railroad, 
and  near  Goose  Creek,  about  three  miles  east  of  Leesburgh,  in 
Loudoun  County.  Specimens  of  these  rocks  which  the  writer 
has  examined  represent  the  coarser  varieties  of  our  Mesozoic 
diabase,  are  of  a  dark  gray  color,  very  strong,  and  apparently 
durable.  That  from  Goose  Creek  has  been  found  to  stand  a 
pressure  of  23,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and,  as  the  author 
has  observed,  undergoes  no  change  on  an  exposure  of  twenty- 
five  years  other  than  a  slight  and  in  no  way  objectionable 
darkening  of  color.  Neither  stone  has  been  used  as  yet  for 
other  than  paving  purposes^ and  bridge  abutments,  though 
they  are  apparently  well  adapted  to  all  kinds  of  work  for 
which  their  color  and  hardness  qualify  them. 


(2)  GABBRO  AND   NORITE. 

The  rock  gabbro  differs  from  diabase  mainly  in  containing 
the  foliated  pyroxene  diallage  in  place  of  augite.  It  is  not  at 
present  quarried  to  any  extent  in  this  country,  though  for  no 
apparent  reason  other  than  that  it  is  difficult  to  work. 

Very  extensive  outcrops  of  a  dark  gray,  almost  black  gab- 
bro of  medium  fineness  of  texture  occur  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  Baltimore,  Maryland,  but  which  have  been  quarried 
only  for  purposes  of  rough  construction  close  at  hand.  The 
rock  is  popularly  known  as  "niggerhead  "  owing  to  its  hard- 
ness, dark  color,  and  its  occurrence  in  rounded  bowlders  on  the 
surface.* 

At  Rice's  Point,  near  Duluth,  Minnesota,  there  occurs  an 
inexhaustible  supply  of  a  coarse  gabbro,  which  has  been  stud- 

*  This  is  the  rock  the  interesting  petrographical  features  of  which  have 
lately  been  made  known  by  Dr.  Williams,  of  Johns  Hopkins  University.  See 
Bull.  'U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  no.  28. 


236  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

ied  and  described  by  Professor  WinchelL*  The  feldspar  of 
the  rock,  which  is  labradorite,  according  to  the  authority  quot- 
ed, sometimes  prevails  as  at  Beaver  Bay,  in  crystals  one-half  to 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  across,  and  to  the  ahnost  entire  exclu- 
sion of  other  constituents.  In  this  form  the  rock  varies  from 
lavender  blue  or  bluish  gray  to  light  green,  and  acquires  a 
beautiful  surface  and  polish,  and  is  considered  as  constituting 
a  valuable  material  for  ornamental  slabs  and  columns.  The 
typical  gabbro  of  the  region  is  of  a  dark  blue-gray  color,  and 
"has  been  employed  in  a  few  buildings  at  Duluth,  both  in  cut 
trimmings  and  for  rough  walls."  It  has  also  been  used  for 
monuments  and  for  bases,  to  which  it  is  especially  adapted, 
being  cut  under  the  chisel  and  polished  more  easily  than  any 
of  the  crystalline  rocks  that  contain  quartz.  The  stone  is 
known  popularly  as  Duluth  granite.  The  same  kind  of  rock 
occurs  at  Taylor's  Falls,  but  is  little  used,  though  favorably 
situated  for  quarrying  and  transporting. 

A  rock  closely  allied  to  the  gabbros  and  diabases  is  the  so- 
called  norite,  which  consists  essentially  of  the  minerals  hyper- 
sthene  and  a  plagioclase  feldspar.  Rocks  of  this  type  are  now 
quarried  on  the  north  and  west  slopes  of  Prospect  Hill,  near 
Keeseville,  Essex  County,  New  York  and  at  Vergennes,  Ver- 
mont. The  stone  of  the  first  named  locality  is  known  com- 
mercially as  Au  Sable  granite,  and  the  second  as  Labradorite 
granite.  Both  are  coarse-grained,  dark-gray  rocks,  much  resem- 
bling the  darker  varieties  of  the  Quincy  granites,  from  which, 
however,  they  differ  radically  in  mineral  composition.  They 
take  a  high  lustrous  polish,  frequently  show  a  beautiful  bright 
bluish  chatoyant  play  of  colors  and  are  seemingly  admirably 
adapted  for  polished  columns,  pilasters,  and  other  decorative 
work. 

*  Geology  of  Minnesota,  vol.  I,  pp.  148-9. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 


The  lasting  power  of  the  norites,  when  polished,  is  yet  to 
be  ascertained.  After  an  exposure  of  untold  years  in  the 
quarry  bed  the  surface  has  turned  white.  No  data  are  obtain- 
able for  calculating  their  lasting  qualities  in  the  finished  struc- 
ture. As  seen  by  the  writer  the  Keeseville  rock  in  the  quarry 
bed  is  cut  by  innumerable  clean  sharp  joints  at  intervals  of 
every  few  feet,  and  in  some  cases  of  even  fractions  of  an  inch. 

In  the  freshly  quarried  stone  these  are  quite  invisible  and 
appear  on  a  polished  surface  as  faint  parallel  lines,  as  fine, 
straight  and  sharp  cut  as  though  made  with  a  diamond.  As  a 
measure  of  precaution  such  jointed  blocks  had  best  be  avoided 
for  purposes  of  fine  monumental  work,  since  it  seems  extremely 
probable  that  the  joints  will  open  on  exposure  for  prolonged 
periods.  Professor  Egleston  who  tested  this  stone  for  the 
company,  reports  that  on  exposure  to  the  heat  of  a  furnace  at 
temperatures  varying  from  800  to  1,850  Fahr.  samples  turned 
light  chocolate-brown,  but  did  not  seriously  disintegrate.  Its 
crushing  strength  as  given  by  the  same  authority  is  29,000 
pounds  per  square  inch.* 

A  dark  greenish  black  norite  or  hypersthene  gabbro  with 
accessory  hornblende  and  black  mica  is  found  in  Anson 
County,  North  Carolina  on  the  line  of  the  Carolina  Central 
Railway.  The  stone  has  been  worked  for  the  Raleigh  market, 
and  so  far  as  may  be  judged  from  small  pieces  compares  very 
favorably  with  other  of  our  so-called  black  granites.  It  cor- 
responds more  nearly  with  the  Addison  [Maine]  gabbro  than 
with  either  of  the  above  mentioned  rocks.  A  fine  grained 
dark  gray  rock  of  this  nature  showing  abundant  small  flecks  of 
dark  mica  and  carrying  in  microscopic  proportions  abundant 
hypersthene  occurs  at  Clifton,  Maine.  The  rock  though  not 
now  quarried  is  admirably  adapted  for  rock-faced  work,  and  so 

*  See  Smock's  Building-stone  in  New  York,  p.  232. 


238  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

far  as  may  be  judged   from  appearances  would  be  found  to 
work  readily. 

The  rock  compares  in  general  appearances  with  the  mica 
diorite  of  Croton  Landing,  New  York,  but  is  of  finer  grain.  A 
coarser,  more  granitic  variety  of  the  same  rock  is  found  in 
Calais  in  Washington  County,  and  has,  as  I  am  informed,  been 
worked  experimentally  by  the  Red  Beach  Granite  Company. 


(3)   MELAPHYR. 

The  melaphyrs,  as  defined  by  Prof.  Rosenbusch,  are  massive 
eruptive  rocks,  consisting  of  plagioclase,  augite,  and  olivine, 
with  free  iron  oxides  and  an  amorphous  or  "  porphyry  "  base. 
They  are  thus  of  the  same  mineral  composition  as  the  basalts 
and  olivine  diabases,  but  differ  structurally,  and  belong  in  great 
part  to  the  Carboniferous  and  older  Permian  formations.  Al- 
though very  abundant  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States, 
they  are  scarcely  at  all  quarried  owing  to  their  dull  colors  and 
poor  working  qualities. 

In  the  Brighton  district  of  Boston,  but  a  few  miles  out  of  the 
city  proper,  and  in  other  localities  in  the  vicinity,  there  occur 
small  outcrops  of  a  greenish  or  sometimes  purplish  melaphyr, 
or  "  amygdaloid,"  the  lithological  nature  of  which  was,  I  be- 
lieve, first  correctly  stated  by  E.  R.  Bent  on*  The  prevailing 
color  of  the  rock  is  greenish,  often  amygdaloidal,  the  amygdules 
being  composed  often  of  epidote,  thus  spotting  the  surface  with 
greenish-yellow  blotches.  The  rock  is  greatly  altered,  only  the 
feldspars  of  the  original  constituents  remaining  now  recogniz- 
able, while  chlorite,  quartz,  calcite,  epidote,  and  several  other 
minerals  occur  as  secondary  products.  The  rock  is  neverthe- 

*  Proceedings  Boston  Society,  vol.  xx,  p.  416. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  239 

less  very  firm,  compact,  and  durable,  and  is  being  quarried  to 
some  extent  for  rough  work.  It  would  seem  fitted  for  a  yet 
wider  architectural  application. 

(4)   BASALT. 

This  rock  differs  from  diabase  only  in  point  of  geological 
age,  being  a  product  of  post-Tertiary  eruptions.  It  is,  as  a 
rule,  less  perfectly  crystalline,  still  retaining  portions  of  its 
glassy  magma.  Owing  in  great  part  to  the  fact  that  basalts 
occur  in  this  country  only  in  the  western  and  more  recently  set- 
tled portions,  as  do  also  the  andesites  and  rhyolites,  they  have 
been  heretofore  but  little  utilized.  There  would  seem,  however, 
no  reason  for  excluding  the  rock  from  the  list  of  available 
building  materials  in  those  regions  where  it  occurs  in  such  form 
as  to  be  accessible.  At  Petaluma,  Bridgeport,  and  other 
places  around  the  bay  of  San  Francisco  there  lie  immense 
sheets  of  this  rock,  but  which  are  worked  now  only  for  paving 
materials.  Like  the  andesites  and  rhyolites  the  basalts  will  not 
polish,  and  their  colors  are  such  as  to  exclude  them  from  all 
forms  of  interior  decorative  work. 


AMPHIBOLE  PLAGIOCLASE  ROCKS  (TRAP  AND  GREEN  STONE, 

IN  PART). 

(l)   DIORITES   AND   KERSANTITES. 

The  name  diorite  from  the  Greek  word  #zopz<rezV,to  distin- 
guish, is  used  to  designate  a  group  of  pre-Tertiary  eruptive 
rocks  consisting  essentially  of  the  minerals  hornblende  and  plag- 
ioclase,  and  occurring  in  the  form  of  dikes,  bosses  and  intrusive 
sheets.  The  individual  crystals  composing  the  rock  are  some- 
times grouped  in  globular  aggregations  forming  the  so-called 


240  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

orbicular  diorite  or  kugel  diorite.  The  texture  is  as  a  rule 
compact,  fine  and  homogeneous,  though  sometimes  porphy- 
ritic.  The  common  colors  are  dark  gray  or  green.  According 
to  Zirkel  the  average  composition  is  : 

Per  Cent. 

Silica 48.5010  60.88 

Alumina 15.72  to  22.12 

Protoxide  of  iron , 6.26  to  11.92 

Lime 5.4710    7.99 

Magnesia , 0.5410    9.70 

Potash 1.0510    3.79 

Soda 2. 20  to    5.21 

Water 0.60  to    1.90 

In  classification  two  principal  varities  are  recognized,  mica 
diorite  or  diorite  in  which  black  mica  is  present  in  excess  of 
the  hornblende,  and  hornblende  diorite  or  diorite  proper.  The 
presence  of  quartz  gives  rise  to  the  variety  quartz  diorite.  The 
name  tonalite  was  given  by  Vom  Rath  to  a  quartz  diorite  con- 
taining the  feldspar  andesite  and  very  rich  in  black  mica  and 
which  occurs  in  the  southern  Alps,  and  the  name  kersantite  has 
been  applied  to  a  dioritic  rock  carrying  black  mica  as  its  chief 
accessory  and  differing  from  the  ordinary  mica  diorite  chiefly  in 
structure.  The  diorites  together  with  the  diabases  and  mela- 
phyrs  have  in  times  past,  owing  to  a  lack  of  definite  knowledge 
of  their  mineral  nature,  been  commonly  known  as  traps  or 
greenstones. 

The  rocks  of  this  group  are  as  a  rule  exceeding  compact  and 
strong,  but  are  scarcely  at  all  used  for  building  purposes  owing 
to  their  lack  of  rift  and  poor  working  qualities  in  general. 
Their  sombre  colors  are  also  a  draw-back  to  any  form  of  archi- 
tectural display. 

In  England  diorites  are  stated  by  Hauenschild  to  be  largely 
used  for  road  materials.  The  kugel  diorite  or  napoleonite 
mentioned  above  is  but  a  peculiar  structural  variety  of  diorite 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  241 

proper.  The  chief  constituents — hornblende  and  feldspar — 
are  frequently  grouped  in  radially  concentric  masses  of  an  inch 
or  more  in  diameter,  and  which  show  up  on  a  polished  surface 
as  oval  or  circular  areas  of  alternating  green  and  white  zones 
encircling  a  granular  nucleus  and  interspersed  irregularly 
throughout  a  greenish  granular  groundmass.  The  rock  has 
been  used  to  some  extent  for  ornamental  purposes.  The  source 
is  the  island  of  Corsica. 

Porphyritic  diorites,  or  porphyrites,  may  be  said  to  bear  the 
same  relation  to  true  diorites  as  do  the  quartz  porphyries  to 
granites.  That  is,  they  consist  of  a  compact  felsitic  base  in 
which  hornblende  or  feldspar  is  porphyritically  developed. 
The  celebrated  red  Egyptian  porphyry  or  Rosso  Antico  is  a 
porphyrite  as  shown  by  Delesse.  The  source  of  this  rock  is 
stated  by  this  authority  to  be  the  Dokhan  Mountains,  about 
twenty-five  miles  from  the  Red  Sea  and  eighty-five  miles  from 
ancient  Captos  (now  called  Kypt).  Rocks  of  this'class,  though 
in  no  way  comparable  from  the  standpoint  of  beauty,  have 
been  described  by  Hawes  *  as  occurring  in  New  Hampshire  at 
Campton  Falls,  North  Lisbon,  Dixville,  and  Dixville  Notch  : 
a  mica  diorite  is  also  described  as  occurring  at  Stewarttown. 
None  of  these  are  put  to  any  practical  use. 

A  dark  gray  granitic-appearing  diorite  of  variable  texture 
occurs  near  Reading,  Berks  County,  Pennsylvania,  which  may 
answer  for  rough  construction.  It  is  not  a  handsome  stone, 
and  is  moreover,  hard  to  work. 

The  National  collections  contain  a  cube  of  a  compact  light 
greenish  gray  diorite,  carrying  quite  an  amount  of  greenish 
mica,  and  plentifully  besprinkled  with  white  porphyritic  feld- 
spar, from  near  El  Paso,  Texas.  This  cuts  to  a  sharp  edge, 


*  Geology  of  New  Hampshire,  vol.  in,  part  iv,  p.  160. 


242  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

and  acquires  a  good  surface  and  polish.  It  appears  like  a  good 
stone  for  ordinary  purposes  of  construction. 

A  somewhat  similar  stone  is  found  near  Monarch,  Chaffee 
County,  Colorado. 

A  quartz  diorite  of  a  coarse  granitic  structure  is  found  and 
quarried  at  Rocklin,  Placer  County,  California.  The  stone  re- 
sembles granite  in  general  appearances,  and  works  with  equal 
facility. 

The  rock  kersantite  has,  so  far  as  is  now  known,  a  rather 
limited  distribution  in  the  United  States.  Some  years  ago 
B.  K.  Emerson  described  a  dike  of  kersantite  cutting  the  zinc 
ores  of  Franklin  Furnace,  New  Jersey,  but  the  outcrops  are 
too  small  to  be  of  value.  Prof.  Newberry*  has  more  recently 
described  outcroppings  of  this  rock  near  Croton  Landing, 
on  the  Hudson  River,  in  New  York  State,  and  which  he 
regards  as  of  value  for  architectural  purposes. 

The  stone  is  described  by  this  authority  as  having  the 
aspect  of  a  dark  gray  granite,  and  varying  in  texture  from  fine 
and  compact  to  coarsely  crystalline  varieties,  in  which  the 
white  feldspars  and  brown  biotite  are  an  inch  or  more  in 
length.  In  the  outcrop  the  stone  is  more  or  less  jointed,  but 
without  distinct  bedding,  and  is  found  to  work  with  equal 
facility  in  any  direction. 

Its  strength  is  stated  to  be  equal  to  20,250  pounds  to  the 
square  inch,  and  weight  178^  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.  The 
stone  takes  a  fine  polish  and  is  regarded  as  very  durable. f 

Kersantite  is  regarded  by  Chateau  J  as  one  of  the  best  of 
rocks  for  constructive  purposes,  though  unfortunately  rare  and 
difficult  to  obtain  in  blocks  of  large  size. 

*  School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  vol.  xiv,  no.  4,  July,  1887,  pp.  33O-332- 
f  Subsequent  studies  have  shown  this  rock  to  be  more  closely  related  to  the 
mica  diorites  than  to  the  true  kersantites. 
\  Technologic  du  Batiment,  vol.  I,  p.  377. 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  243 

The  rock  takes  its  name  from  Kersanton  in  Brittany, 
where  it  has  been  quarried  and  utilized  in  architectural  work 
for  many  years. 

(2)  THE  ANDESITES. 

Under  the  name  of  andesite  is  included  a  group  of  vol- 
canic rocks  (lavas)  of  Tertiary  and  post-Tertiary  age,  and  con- 
sisting essentially  of  a  triclinic  feldspar  and  hornblende,  augite, 
or  black  mica. 

In  structure  the  andesites  are  rarely  entirely  crystalline, 
but  usually  present  a  fine  densely  microlitic  or  partly  glassy 
groundmass.  According  as  they  vary  in  composition  four 
principal  varieties  are  recognized  :  (i)  Quartz  andesite  (dacite) 
or  andesite  in  which  quartz  is  a  prominent  ingredient ;  (2)  horn- 
blende andesite ;  (3)  augite  andesite ;  and  (4)  mica  andesite, 
each  taking  its  name  according  as  hornblende,  augite,  or  mica 
is  the  principal  accessory  mineral.  Hypersthene  andesite,  or 
andesite  in  which  the  mineral  hypersthene  is  a  leading  con- 
stituent, is  also  common  in  many  of  the  Western  States  and 
Territories. 

The  andesites  are  as  yet  but  little  used  for  structural  pur- 
poses, and  this  largely  for  the  same  reasons  as  were  given  in 
the  chapter  on  liparites.  Like  the  rhyolites,  they  will  not 
polish,  and  are  in  no  way  suited  for  decorative  work.  Although 
very  abundant  throughout  many  of  the  Western  States  and 
Territories,  they  have  been  quarried  only  in  a  few  instances, 
and  in  an  itinerant  way.  Near  Virginia  City,  Storey  County, 
Nevada,  occur  coarse,  dark  blue,  gray,  and  reddish  brown  por- 
phyritic  andesites,  which  have  been  used  in  the  near  vicinity 
for  structural  purposes.  At  Reno,  in  Washoe  County,  is  also 
quarried  a  light  gray  andesite,  which  has  been  used  for  founda- 
tion walls,  in  the  construction  of  the  prison  and  a  few  stores  in 


244  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

Reno.  In  Virginia  City,  Madison  County,  Montana,  the 
writer  has  also  observed  shop  fronts  built  of  andesite  quarried 
from  some  of  the  numerous  outcrops  in  the  near  vicinity. 


SCHISTOSE,  OR   FOLIATED   ROCKS. 

(l)   THE   GNEISSES. 

The  gneisses,  as  already  noted,  have  essentially  the  same 
composition  as  do  the  granites,  from  which  they  differ  mainly 
in  their  foliated  or  schistose  structure.  On  account  of  this 
schistosity  the  rocks  split  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  parallel  flat 
surfaces,  which  render  the  stone  serviceable  in  the  construction 
of  rough  walls  and  for  street  curbing.  This  structure,  which 
is  caused  mainly  by  the  arrangement  of  the  mica  and  other 
minerals  in  parallel  layers,  is,  however,  a  drawback  to  the  uni- 
form working  of  the  stones,  arid  hence  they  are  more  limited 
in  their  application  than  are  the  granites.  These  rocks  are 
frequently  called  by  quarrymen  stratified  or  bastard  granites. 
The  name  gneiss,  it  should  be  stated,  is  of  German  origin,  and 
should  be  pronounced  as  though  spelled  mce,  never  as  nees. 
For  reasons  already  given,  the  gneisses  have  been  included 
under  the  chapter  on  granites  in  the  present  work. 

(2)  THE    SCHISTS. 

The  general  name  of  schists  is  applied  to  a  widely  varying 
group  of  rocks  having  a  more  or  less  pronounced  schistose 
structure  as  a  common  characteristic.  Quartz  may  be  consid- 
ered as  the  only  essential  constituent,  and  is  accompanied,  as 
a  rule,  by  one  or  more  minerals  of  the  mica  or  hornblende 
groups  as  principal  accessory.  Accordingly  as  one  or  another 


S7VNES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  24$ 

of  these  prevails,  we  have  therefore  mica,  hornblende,  talcose, 
or  chloritic  schists.  They  differ  from  the  gneisses,  it  will  be' 
observed,  only  in  the  lack  of  feldspar  as  an  essential  con- 
stituent. In  company  with  these  latter  rocks  the  schists  were 
once  supposed  to  be,  in  all  cases,  metamorphosed  sediments, 
to  which  fact  they  owed  their  marked  foliated  or  stratified 
structures.  Modern  investigation  has,  however,  shown  that 
these  same  structures  may  be  produced  in  massive  eruptive 
rocks  by  dynamic  and  incident  chemical  agencies.  While  they 
are  therefore  undoubtedly  metamorphic  rocks,  we  must  not  fall 
into  the  error  of  regarding  them  in  all  cases  as  metamorphosed 
sediments.  But  whatever  their  origin,  this  schistose  structure 
is  from  our  present  standpoint  the  most  important  considera- 
tion. The  rocks  split  with  great  readiness,  and  frequently 
with  very  smooth  and  even  surfaces  parallel  with  this  schist- 
osity,  but  break  with  considerable  difficulty,  and  often  very 
ragged  edges  at  right  angles  to  it.  These  peculiarities  of  the 
schists  are  not  such  as  to  render  them  favorites  for  purposes 
of  fine  construction.  They  are,  however,  in  most  instances 
broken  out  from  the  ledges  with  comparative  ease,  and  for 
rough  construction,  such  as  foundations  and  bridges,  as  well  as 
for  flagging,  they  are  extensively  employed. 


FRAGMENTAL  ROCKS. 

(l)   SANDSTONES,   BRECCIAS,   AND   CONGLOMERATES. 

(«)  COMPOSITION  AND  ORIGIN. 

Sandstones  are  composed  of  rounded  and  angular  grains 
of  sand  so  cemented  and  compacted  as  to  form  a  solid  rock. 
The  cementing  material  may  be  either  silica,  carbonate  of  lime, 
an  iron  oxide,  or  clayey  matter.  Upon  the  character  of  this 


246  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

cementing  material,  more  perhaps  than  upon  the  character  of 
the  grains  themselves;  is  dependent  the  color  of  the  rock  and 
its  adaptability  for  architectural  purposes.  If  silica  alone  is 
present  the  rock  is  light-colored,  and  frequently  so  intensely 
hard  that  it  can  be  worked  only  with  great  difficulty.  Such 
are  among  the  most  durable  of  all  rocks,  but  their  light  colors 
and  poor  working  qualities  are  something  of  a  drawback  to 
their  extensive  use.  The  cutting  of  such  stones  often  subjects 
the  workmen  to  serious  inconvenience  on  account  of  the  very 
fine  and  sharp  dust  or  powder  made  by  the  tools,  and  which  is 
so  light  as  to  remain  suspended  for  some  time  in  the  air.  The 
hard  Potsdam  sandstones  of  New  York  State  have  been  the 
subject  of  complaint  on  this  score.  If  the  cement  is  com- 
posed largely  of  iron  oxides  the  stone  is  red  or  brownish  in 
color,  and  usually  not  too  hard  to  work  readily.*  When  the 
cementing  material  is  carbonate  of  lime  the  stone  is  light 
colored  or  gray,  soft,  and  easy  to  work.  As  a  rule  such  stones 
do  not  weather  so  well  as  those  with  either  the  siliceous  or 
ferruginous  cement ;  owing  to  the  ready  solubility  of  the  lime 
in  the  water  of  slightly  acidulated  rains  the  siliceous  grains 
become  loosened,  and  the  rock  disintegrates.  The  clayey 
cement  is  more  objectionable  than  any  yet  mentioned,  since  it 
readily  absorbs  water  and  renders  the  stone  more  liable  to 
injury  by  frost.  Many  sandstones  contain  little  if  any 
cement,  but  owe  their  tenacity  simply  to  the  pressure  to 
which  they  were  subjected  at  the  time  of  their  consolidation. 
Such  stones  are  generally  of  a  grayish  hue,  easy  to  work,  and, 

*  Julien  states  that  in  the  Tertiary  sandstones  of  the  Appalachian  border  the 
ferruginous  cement  is  largely  turgite  ;  in  the  Triassic  and  Carboniferous  sand- 
stones it  is  largely  limonite,  and  in  the  Potsdam  sandstones  of  Lake  Champlain 
and  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Superior  it  is  largely  hematite.  (Proceedings  of 
the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  vol.  xxvm.  1879, 
p.  408.) 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  247 

if  the  amount  of  cohesion  be  sufficiently  great,  are  very  dur- 
able. The  finer  varieties  of  these  stones,  such  as  the  Euclid 
"bluestone  "  and  "  Berea  grits,"  are  utilized  in  the  manufacture 
of  grindstones  and  whetstones.  Since  they  contain  little 
cementing  material  they  do  not  become  polished  when 
exposed  to  wear,  but  crumble  slowly  away,  presenting  always 
fresh,  sharp  surfaces  to  be  acted  upon.  In  certain  of  our 
Potsdam  sandstones  the  siliceous  cement  is  found  to  have 
so  arranged  itself  with  relation  to  the  grains  of  sand  as  to 
practically  convert  it  into  a  crystalline  rock  or  quartzite.  This 
has  already  been  referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  microscopic 
structure. 

Sandstones  are  not  in  all  cases  composed  wholly  of  quartz 
grains,  but  frequently  contain  a  variety  of  minerals.  The 
brown  Triassic  sandstones  of  Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  and 
Pennsylvania  are  found,  on  miscroscopic  and  chemical  exami- 
nation, to  contain  one  or  more  kinds  of  feldspar  and  also  mica 
(see  Fig.  6,  Plate  II),  having,  in  fact,  nearly  the  same  composi- 
tion as  a  granite  or  gneiss,  from  which  they  were  doubtless 
originally  derived.  According  to  Dr.  P.  Schweitzer,*  a  fine- 
grained  sandstone  from  the  so-called  Palisade  range  in  New 
Jersey  contains  from  30  to  60  per  cent  of  the  feldspar  albite. 
That  quarried  at  Newark,  in  the  same  State,  contains,  accord- 
ing to  his  analysis,  albite,  50.46  per  cent  ;  quartz,  45.49  per 
cent ;  soluble  silica,  .30  per  cent ;  bases  soluble  in  hydro- 
chloric acid,  2.19  per  cent,  and  water,  1.14  per  cent. 

Sandstones  are  of  a  great  variety  of  colors  ;  light  gray 
(almost  white),  gray,  buff,  drab  or  blue,  light  brown,  brown, 
pink,  and  red  are  common  varieties,  and,  as  already  stated,  the 
color  is  largely  due  to  the  iron  contained  by  them.  Accord- 


*  American  Chemist,  July,  1871,  p.  23. 


248  SJ'ONES  FOR    BUILDING   AND   DECORATION. 


ing  to  Mr.  G.  Maw*  the  red  and  brownish-red  colors  are  due 
to  the  presence  of  iron  in  the  anhydrous  sesquioxide  state, 
the  yellow  color  to  iron  in  the  hydrous  sesquioxide  state,  and 
the  blue  and  gray  tints  to  protoxide  carbonates  of  iron.  It  is 
also  stated  that  the  blue  color  is  sometimes  caused  by  finely- 
disseminated  iron  pyrites,  and  rarely  by  an  iron  phosphate,  f 
(See  page  40.) 

In  texture  sandstones  vary  from  almost  impalpably  fine- 
grained stones  to  those  in  which  the  individual  grains  are 
several  inches  in  diameter.  These  coarser  stones  are  called 
conglomerates,  or,  if  the  grains  are  angular  instead  of  rounded, 
breccias. 

All  sandstones,  when  freshly  quarried,  are  found  to  contain 
a  variable  amount  of  water,  which  renders  them  soft  and  more 
easily  worked,  but  at  the  same  time  peculiarly  liable  to  injury 
by  freezing.  So  pronounced  is  this  character  that  many  quar- 
ries in  the  northern  regions  can  be  worked  .only  in  the  summer 
months,  as  during  the  cold  season  the  freshly  quarried  mate- 
rial would  freeze,  burst,  and  become  entirely  ruined.  It  is 
customary  also  for  dealers  to  refuse  to  assume  any  risks  of 
injury  from  freezing  to  which  such  stone  may  be  liable  after 
shipment.  After  the  evaporation  of  this  "  quarry  water,"  as 
it  is  called,  the  stone  is  found  to  be  considerably  harder,  and 
hence  more  difficult  to  work.  This  hardening  process  is  ex- 
plained by  Newberry  and  others  by  the  theory  that  the  quarry 
water  holds  in  solution  certain  of  the  cementing  materials,  as 
noted  elsewhere. 

(ft)  VARIETIES  OF  SANDSTONES. 

Many  varieties  of  sandstones  are  popularly  recognized,  the 
distinctions  being  founded  upon  their  composition,  structure, 

*  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  No.  xxiv.  p.  355. 
f  Notes  on  Building  Construction,  part  m.  p.  35. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATJON.  249 

the  character  of  the  cementing  material,  or  their  working 
qualities.  Arkose  is  a  sandstone  composed  of  disintegrated 
granite.  Ferruginous,  siliceous,  and  calcareous  sandstones  are 
those  in  which  these  substances  form  the  cementing  material. 
Argillaceous  sandstones  contain  clay,  which  can  easily  be  recog- 
nized by  its  odor  when  breathed  upon.  Flagstone  is  a  sandstone 
that  splits  readily  into  thin  sheets  suitable  for  flagging  ;  the  same 
term  is  applied  to  other  rocks,  as  the  schists  and  slates,  which 
serve  a  similar  purpose.  Freestones  are  so  called  because  they 
work  freely  in  any  direction,  their  bedding  or  grain  not  being 
strongly  enough  marked  to  in  any  way  interfere  with  this 
property.  Graywacke  is  a  compact  sandstone,  composed  of 
rounded  grains  or  fragments  of  quartz,  feldspar,  slate,  and 
other  minerals,  cemented  by  an  argillaceous,  calcareous,  or 
feldspathic  paste.  This  term  is  no  longer  in  general  use. 
Quartzites  result  from  the  induration  of  sandstones,  a  result 
brought  about  either  by  pressure  or,  more  commonly,  by  the 
deposition  of  silica  between  the  granules. 

Sandstones  occur  among  rocks  of  all  ages,  from  the 
Archaean  down  to  the  most  recent ;  none  are,  however,  at 
present  used  to  any  great  extent  for  building  purposes  in  this 
country  that  are  of  later  origin  than  Cretaceous.  In  the  list 
of  natural  building  materials  of  the  United  States  sandstone 
ranks  third  in  importance. 

(<r)  SANDSTONES  OF  THE  VARIOUS  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 

Alabama.—  On  the  line  of  the  Alabama  Great  Southern 
Railway,  some  60  or  100  miles  from  Chattanooga,  Tennessee, 
there  occurs  a  yellow  sandstone  that  is  sufficiently  soft  when 
first  quarried  to  be  cut  with  an  ax,  and  which  hardens  suffi- 
ciently on  exposure  to  be  very  durable  in  that  climate. 

Arizona. — There  is  at  present  little  demand  for  building 


250  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AA'D   DECORATION. 

stone  in  this  Territory,  and  consequently  but  little  is  known 
regarding  its  available  material. 

Near  Flagstaff  in  Yavapai  County,  on  the  line  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  railroad,  there  occurs  a  fine-grained  light 
pink,  brownish  and  red  sandstone,  evidently  of  Triassic  age, 
which  on  account  of  its  warm  and  pleasing  colors  and  easy 
working  qualities  would  offer  great  temptations  to  the  Eastern 
architect  and  builder  were  it  more  accessible.  It  is  quarried  to 
some  extent  for  the  California  market,  but  unfortunately  as 
shown  by  analysis  (see  table  p.  420)  contains  so  large  a  percent- 
age of  free  calcite  that  its  enduring  powers  are  to  say  the  least 
very  doubtful. 

Arkansas. — Brown  massive  "  freestone"  that  will  make  a 
good  building  stone  is  stated  by  Owen*  to  occur  in  Van 
Buren  County.  The  northern  part  of  the  State  is  saidf  to 
contain  a  great  quantity  of  cream  colored  calciferous  sand- 
stone which,  on  account  of  its  color,  firmness  and  massive- 
ness,  is  a  desirable  stone  for  architectural  purposes.  Gray 
sandstones  are  common  throughout  the  coal  regions  of  the 
State,  but  thus  far  have  been  used  only  to  a  slight  extent.  In 
the  Boston  Mountains  and  its  spurs  is  a  beautiful,  massive, 
snuff-colored  sandstone  which  is  one  of  the  handsomest  building 
stones  of  the  State.  The  beds  in  which  this  stone  occurs  are 
tolerably  widespread,  though  they  have  been  quarried  at  but 
one  or  two  places  along  the  St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco  rail- 
road in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State.  This  stone  has 
been  used  in  a  few  buildings  in  Fort  Smith. 

At  Batesville  in  Independence  County,  and  through  the 
country  west  of  that  point  and  north  of  the  Boston  Mountain 
range  are  beds  of  cream-colored  sandstone  which  are  extensively 
used  in  those  portions  of  the  State  for  building  and  street  pav- 

*  Geology  of  Arkansas,  1858,  p.  75.     f  J.  C.  Branner,  Stone,  Oct.  1889. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  2$l 

ing.  It  is  easily  quarried  and  splits  in  blocks  of  any  desired 
thickness.  The  business  part  of  Batesville  is  built  of  this 
stone. 

California. — Around  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  there  occur 
sandstones  of  a  considerable  variety  of  colors,  which  are  begin- 
ning to  come  into  use  to  some  extent.  The  prevailing  hues 
here  are  brownish  and  gray.  On  Angel  Island,  in  Marin 
County,  there  occurs  a  fine  sandstone  of  a  bluish  or  greenish-gray 
color,  which  has  been  used  in  the  Bank  of  California  building, 
and  others  of  a  lighter  shade  are  found  in  various  parts  of 
Alameda  County.  A  few  miles  south  of  San  Jose",  Santa  Clara 
County,  there  are  also  inexhaustible  supplies  of  light  gray 
and  buff  stone,  but  which  are  at  present  worked  only  in  a 
small  way. 

Other  beds  more  or  less  worked  are  found  near  Almaden 
in  this  same  county;  in  the  Santa  Susanna  Mountains  in  Los 
Angeles  County  and  near  Henley  in  Siskiyou  County  ;  near 
Redwood  City  in  San  Mateo  County  and  near  Arroyo  Grande, 
San  Luis  Obispo  County. 

According  to  Prof.  Jackson  *  the  Angel  Island  stone  con- 
sists of  grayish  white  quartz  and  feldspar,  black  mica  scales, 
and  angular  fragments  of  black  clay  slate  varying  in  sizes  from 
15  m  m.  or  more  in  diameter,  to  minute  black  particles  that  are 
thickly  disseminated  through  the  stone.  These  granules  and 
fragments  are  hel'd  in  a  dull,  earthy,  scarcely  perceptible 
cement,  hardened  somewhat  by  carbonate  of  lime.  Submitted 
to  the  fumes  of  strong  acid  the  stone  lost  its  bluish  tint  and 
turned  to  a  light  gray,  discolored  by  streaks  and  patches  of 
yellow  iron  oxide.  The  loss  in  weight  during  the  exposure 
amounted  to  2.13  per  cent.  Heated  in  a  muffle  furnace  to 
bright  redness  and  allowed  to  cool  to  just  below  red  heat  the 


*  Annual  Report  State  Mineralogist  of  California,  1888,  p.  886. 


252  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

cube  was  found  to  be  cracked  completely  through  in  several 
directions,  and  on  then  being  plunged  into  cold  water  became 
friable  and  fell  to  fragments  on  handling.  As  shown  in  the 
bank  building  above  mentioned  the  stone  weathers  unfavorably. 
Although  erected  only  in  1864  disintegration  has  already  gone 
so  far  that  recourse  has  been  had  to  a  coating  of  paraffine  in 
hope  of  arresting  further  decay. 

The  San  Jose  stone  is  described  by  the  above  authority  as 
of  rather  a  coarse  and  uneven  texture,  friable  in  small  pieces, 
and  containing  carbonate  of  lime  in  its  cement.  On  exposure 
to  acid  fumes  the  color  was  leached  out  of  a  zone  an  inch  in 
depth  all  over  the  fragment  experimented  upon,  and  concen- 
trated in  streaks  on  the  surface.  Fissure  joints  were  developed, 
not  visible  on  the  fresh  specimen,  and  fragments  could  easily 
be  separated  by  the  hand  in  places;  the  loss  by  disintegration 
was  1.94  per  cent.  The  stone  stood  the  test  of  heat  and  sub- 
sequent immersion  without  serious  disintegration. 

The  Alameda  County  stone  is  described  as  light  grayish, 
yellow  and  fine  grained,  though  somewhat  variable  in  texture, 
and  quite  friable.  Samples  when  exposed  to  the  strong  acid 
fumes  became  still  more  friable  and  lost  by  disintegration  3.43 
per  cent  in  weight.  The  color  was  also  leached  out  of  a  super- 
ficial zone  and  concentrated  on  the  surface  in  dark  yellowish- 
brown  streaks.  On  exposure  to  bright  red  heat  the  stone 
changed  in  color  to  a  light  reddish  brown,  'and  underwent  no 
further  change  on  plunging  it  while  still  hot  into  cold  water. 
The  crushing  strength  and  ratios  of  absorption  of  these  stones 
are  given  in  the  tables  (p.  41 3).  Near  Sespein  Ventura  County 
are  also  several  outcrops  of  a  fine-grained,  brown  sandstone, 
which  are  now  supplying  material  for  the  San  Francisco  market. 
Like  the  other  mentioned  it  carries  a  considerable  amount  of 
calcareous  matter,  but  it  is  nevertheless  regarded  by  Prof.  Jack- 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION,  253 

son  as  a  valuable  stone.     Exposed  to  the  acid  fumes,  samples 
bleached  somewhat  and  lost  by  disintegration  2.37  per  cent. 

In  the  Santa  Susanna  Mountains,  about  eight  miles  from 
San  Fernando  Station  in  Los  Angeles  County  and  on  the 
Southern  Pacific  railroad  occur  inexhaustible  deposits  of  coarse 
and  fine  yellowish  sandstone  and  which  are  now  being  worked 
from  bowlders  by  a  Los  Angeles  company.  Prof.  Jackson 
reports  *  the  coarse  variety,  when  treated  as  above,  as  absorb- 
ing 5.33  per  cent  of  water,  and  losing  on  treatment  with  acid 
fumes  7.3  per  cent  of  its  weight  by  disintegration,  besides 
becoming  discolored.  Highly  heated  the  stone  changed  to  a 
beautiful  brownish  red,  but  did  not  crack  or  scale  when  dropped 
into  cold  water.  The  finer-grained  variety  from  this  source  is 
described  as  a  beautiful  evenly  fine-grained  stone,  of  nearly 
uniform  light  grayish  yellow  color,  minutely  specked  with  black 
and  silver-white  mica  scales.  This  variety  absorbed  6.19  per 
cent  of  water  and  in  the  acid  fumes  lost  by  disintegration  16.9 
per  cent  of  its  weight  besides  staining  yellowish  in  spots.  In 
the  heat  test  it  behaved  as  did  the  coarser  variety.  The  Henley 
sandstone  is  described  as  a  moderately  fine  grained  light  bluish 
gray  stone,  showing  to  the  unaided  eye,  dark  gray  and  whitish 
quartz  granules  with  numerous  black  and  few  white  mica  scales, 
held  together  by  an  argillaceous  and  calcareous  cement.  The 
absorption  of  water  was  4.07  per  cent.  In  the  acid  fumes  it 
lost  by  disintegration  5-55  per  cent,  and  changed  to  a  bright 
yellow  color.  In  the  muffle  samples  at  full  red  heat  turned  to 
a  brownish  red  color,  cracked  and  scaled  somewhat,  but  under- 
went no  further  change  when  dropped  in  cold  water.  The 
stone  is  stated  to  work  readily,  and  as  shown  by  the  specimens 
is  free  from  flaws.  The  beds  as  above  noted  are  quarried  near 
Henley,  at  a  point  within  one  mile  of  Hornbroke  Station  on 


*  Seventh  Annual  Report  State  Mineralogist  of  California  1887,  p-  209. 


254  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

the  California  and  Oregon  Railroad.  The  supply  is  inex- 
haustible. 

Near  Cordelia,  Solano  County,  there  occurs  a  coarse,  dark- 
gray  volcanic  tuff,  that  can,  perhaps,  be  utilized  for  rough  con- 
struction should  occasion  demand. 

Colorado. — This  State  contains  a  variety  of  sandstones,  of 
good  quality,  but  which  owing  to  lack  of  transportation  facili- 
ties and  the  thinly  settled  condition  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
country,  are  as  yet  in  little  demand. 

According  to  Mr.  George  H.  Eldridge  the  strata  of  the 
Lower  Trias — the  "  Red  Beds"  of  the  West — yield  at  various 
points  in  Colorado  building  stones  of  great  variety  of  shades, 
texture  and  strength.  As  a  rule  those  east  of  the  main  range 
of  the  mountains  occur  within  500  feet  of  the  top  of  the  series : 
a  zone  generally  of  much  finer  material  than  is  met  with  at 
points  lower  down  in  the  formation.  Within  this  distance 
three  particularly  distinguishable  varieties  of  stone  occur  each 
well  adapted  to  its  own  special  use :  the  first  a  handsome  light 
red,  used  frequently  in  superstructures  ;  the  second  a  hard, 
banded,  rather  thin  bedded  variety  employed  as  flagging  and 
in  foundations  on  account  of  its  great  compressive  strength  ; 
the  third  a  white  siliceous  quartzite,  the  homologue  of  the 
creamy  sandstones  employed  extensively  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi for  curbing,  flagging  and  paving. 

The  first  of  the  above  varieties,  known  as  Manitou  stone 
from  the  locality  from  which  the  chief  supply  is  derived,  is  of 
a  warm,  light  red  color  and*  of  a  soft  texture,  but  varying  con- 
siderably in  compressive  strength  from  point  to  point  along  its 
outcrop.  The  latter  rarely  falls  below  the  degree  required  for 
private  residences,  but  in  its  selection  for  heavy  business  blocks 
a  careful  choice  of  the  quarries  furnishing  it  should  be  made. 

The  composition  of  this  stone  is  chiefly  an  aggregate  of  fine, 
well  rounded  quartz  grains,  a  little  feldspar,  and  an  occasional 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  255 

grain  of  magnetite,  the  whole  being  impregnated  with  the  ses- 
quioxide  of  iron.  The  rock  is  heavily  bedded,  from  5  to  15 
feet,  the  beds  being  sometimes  separated  by  narrow  seams  of 
clay  or  shaly  sandstone.  Weathering  has  extended  usually 
but  a  slight  distance  beneath  the  surface,  the  stripping  being 
consequently  reduced  to  a  minimum.  At  Manitou  the  beds 
stand  at  an  angle  of  80°  or  90°  with  the  horizon,  dipping 
usually  toward  the  east,  the  strike  being  toward  the  north. 
The  end  joints  are  sufficiently  far  apart  to  permit  the  quarry- 
ing of  blocks  of  any  practical  size. 

At  the  quarries  now  in  operation  the  natural  rift  of  the 
rock  is  not  often  utilized,  the  beds  standing  so  nearly  vertical, 
and  being  frequently  of  so  great  thickness  that  channeling  is 
employed  almost  exclusively. 

The  Manitou  stone  works  with  great  ease  and  is  well  adapt- 
ed for  a  variety  of  architectural  uses  as  displayed  in  numerous 
private  and  public  buildings  in  Denver.  The  geological  posi- 
tion of  the  stone  is  about  400  feet  below  the  top  of  the  Lower 
Trias. 

The  second  variety  of  stone,  that  used  for  flagging  and 
foundations  occurs  at  approximately  the  same  horizon  as  the 
Manitou  stone  and  also  from  this  up  to  the  summit  of  the  Red 
Beds  proper  where  it  locally  passes  gradually  into  the  third 
variety,  the  Creamy  sandstones,  which  are  used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  the  second  and  for  paving  purposes  as  well. 

Quarries  have  been  opened  in  the  above  described  beds  at 
Bellevue,  Stout,  and  Arkins  in  Larimer  County,  Lyons  in 
Boulder  County,  and  at  other  points  in  the  vicinity. 

The  first  named  are  situated  about  9  miles  west  of  Fort 
Collins.  The  stone  is  here  heavy  bedded,  harder  and  with  a 
compressive  strength  considerably  in  excess  of  that  of  the 
other  strictly  building  stones  east  of  the  range.  Blocks  5  or  6 
feet  in  thickness  and  of  any  desired  length  are  readily  obtained. 


256  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

The  color  is  a  deep  and  rather  sombre  red.  The  stone  is 
regarded  by  Mr.  Eldridge  as  admirably  adapted  for  use  in  the 
lower  courses  of  superstructures  and  in  other  portions  of  build- 
ings requiring  especial  strength. 

At  the  quarries  the  stone  is  of  nearly  uniform  texture 
throughout,  consisting  mainly  of  fine  quartz  grains  with  an  oc- 
casional accessory  mineral,  the  whole  colored  by  iron  oxides. 
The  beds  lie  at  an  angle  of  about  30°  with  the  horizon,  and  the 
rocks  form  a  bold  outcrop  100  feet  in  height  to  the  west,  the 
quarry  opening  being  on  the  backs  of  the  strata,  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  ridge. 

But  from  3  to  6  feet  of  stripping  is  necessary  to  reach  stone 
of  good  quality. 

The  quarries  at  Stout  and  in  its  vicinity  are  limited  to 
foundation  and  paving  stones.  The  stone  here  is  practically  a 
quartzite,  and  it  is  stated  has  shown  a  crushing  strength  of 
30,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  It  is  thin  bedded  and  shows  a 
well  marked  grain,  whereby  quarrying  is  rendered  fairly  easy, 
but  the  stone  is  too  hard  for  general  building.  The  prevailing 
color  is  white,  though  sometimes  tinted  a  faint  red  or  locally 
dotted  with  small  spots  of  hydrated  oxide  of  iron.  The  stone 
from  both  the  Bellevue  and  Stout  quarries  has  long  been  des- 
ignated as  Fort  Collins  stone  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  town 
of  this  name  is  the  leading  one  of  the  region. 

The  Arkins  stone  is  stated  to  be  similar  to  that  of  Stout. 
The  Lyons  quarries  are  located  about  the  town  of  this  name, 
which  lies  about  12  miles  west  of  Longmont  at  the  termi- 
nus of  the  Denver,  Longmont  and  Lyons  branch  of  the 
Burlington  R.  R.  system.  The  product  of  these  quarries 
closely  resembles  that  of  Bellevue  and  it  is  used  exclusively  for 
flagging,  curbing,  and  sills.  The  stone  is  regarded  as  very 
durable. 

Along  the  low  bluffs  of  Cretaceous  sandstone  forming  the 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  2  $7 

north  bank  of  St.  Vrains  Creek,  about  3  miles  east  of  Long- 
mont,  Boulder  County,  have  been  opened  numerous  quarries 
which  furnish  fine  yellow  and  blue  gray  stone  of  good  quality 
for  general  building.  The  upper  layers  only  are  yellow,  owing 
to  an  increased  amount  of  iron  oxides.  Both  yellow  and  gray 
varieties  are  stated  by  the  authority  quoted  to  be  rather 
porous,  and  their  durability  remains  yet  to  be  tested. 

At  Glencoe,  above  Golden,  in  Jefferson  County,  there  oc- 
curs a  deep  salmon-red  Triassic  stone  of  a  beautiful  warm  and 
lively  hue.  It  is  said  to  work  with  considerable  difficulty,  but 
is  much  sought  on  account  of  its  color.  Its  principal  market  is 
now  Chicago,  but  it  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  it  cannot  be  intro- 
duced into  our  Eastern  markets.  Near  Morrison,  in  the  same 
county,  there  occur  extensive  beds  of  red  and  nearly  white 
sandstone.  The  white  is  not  considered  desirable,  but  the  red 
is  much  sought  for  trimming  purposes.  It  is  stated  to  absorb 
water  readily,  and  hence  to  be  peculiarly  liable  to  damage  from 
frost. 

At  Coal  Creek,  in  Fremont  County,  is  a  fine  grayish  or  buff 
stone  of  Laramie  age,  and  which  closely  resembles  the  sub- 
Carboniferous  stone  of  Berea,  Ohio.  As  seen  by  the  writer  in 
the  stone-yards  of  Denver,  this  is  a  most  excellent  material, 
being  free  from  flaws,  of  good  color,  and  cutting  to  a  sharp 
edge.  It  is  stated  that  it  occurs  in  exhaustible  quantities  and 
is  obtainable  in  blocks  of  large  size. 

The  light-colored  stone  used  in  the  construction  of  the 
court-house  at  Denver  was  obtained  from  these  beds  near 
Canon  City.  Trinidad,  Las  Animas  County,  also  furnishes  a 
good  sandstone,  which  is  used  in  Denver  ;  another  important 
stone  of  good  quality  is  brought  from  Amargo,  in  Rio  Arribo 
County,  across  the  line  in  New  Mexico. 

Connecticut. — As  already  noted  (ante,  p.  6)  the  first  quar- 
ries of  sandstone  to  be  systematically  worked  in  this  country 


258  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

were  those  located  in  the  now  well-known  Triassic  beds  at 
Portland  and  Middletown,  in  this  State.  The  area  of  the 
Triassic  deposit  in  New  England  as  given  by  Dana  *  extends 
from  New  Haven  on  Long  Island  Sound  to  northern  Massa- 
chusetts, having  a  length  of  1 10  miles  and  an  average  width 
of  20  miles.  The  stone  is  at  present  quarried  at  Portland, 
Middletown,  and  Middlesex  County,  East  Haven,  New  Haven 
County,  and  Manchester,  Hartford  County;  though  small 
quarries  have  been  worked  from  time  to  time  to  furnish  stone 
for  local  consumption  at  East  Windsor,  Hayden's  Station,  Suf- 
field,  Newington,  Farmington,  and  Forrestville  in  this  same 
county.  The  Manchester  stone  is  a  beautiful  fine-grained  red- 
dish variety,  and  that  from  East  Haven  is  represented  as  excel- 
lent for  rock-faced  work.  The  Portland  quarries  are,  however, 
by  far  the  most  important,  of  any  of  these,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  from  their  combined  areas  not  less  than  4,300,000  cubic 
feet  of  material  have  been  taken. 

As  now  worked  at  this  place  the  quarries  descend  with 
nearly  perpendicular  walls  on  three  sides  for  a  depth  in  some 
cases  of  upwards  of  150  feet,  the  fourth  side  being  sloping  to 
allow  passage  for  teams  or  workmen.  The  stone  is  of  medium 
fineness  of  texture,  of  a  uniform  reddish-brown  color,  and  lies 
in  nearly  horizontal  beds  varying  from  a  few  inches  to  20  feet 
in  thickness.  Natural  blocks  100  by  50  by  20  feet  occur,  and 
hence  blocks  of  any  desired  size  can  be  obtained.  In  quarry- 
ing, channeling  machines  are  used  to  some  extent,  though  in 

*  Manual  of  Geology,  p.  404.  The  entire  area  of  the  Triassic  sandstones  in 
the  United  States  as  given  by  this  authority  is  divided  into  three  parts  :  (i)  the 
Connecticut  area  as  given  above  ;  (2)  the  Palisade  area,  commencing  along  the 
west  side  of  the  Hudson  River  in  the  south-east  corner  of  New  York,  near  Pier- 
mont,  and  stretching  southwestward,  through  Pennsylvania,  as  far  as  Orange 
County,  Virginia,  about  350  miles  long  ;  and  [3]  the  North  Carolina  area,  com- 
mencing near  the  Virginia  line  and  extending  through  North  Carolina  over  the 
Deep  River  region,  120  miles  long. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  2$9 

many  cases  large  blocks  are  first  loosened  by  means  of  deep 
drill  holes  and  heavy  charges  of  powder,  and  these  then  split 
up  by  wedges.  (See  plate  VII.)  The  blocks  are  roughly  trimm- 
ed down  with  picks  at  the  quarry  and  shipped  thus  to  New 
York  and  other  large  cities  to  be  worked  up  as  occasion 
demands.  Until  lately  but  little  of  the  material  has  been 
dressed  at  the  quarries.  The  stone  has  been  used  in  all  our 
leading  cities,  particularly  in  New  York,  and  has  even  been 
shipped  to  San  Francisco  via  Cape  Horn.  But  little  quarrying 
is  done  in  cold  weather,  as  care  must  be  taken  against  freezing 
while  the  stone  is  full  of  quarry  water,  a  temperature  of  22°  F. 
being  sufficient  to  freeze  and  burst  fine  blocks  of  freshly  quar- 
ried material.  About  a  week  or  ten  days  of  good  drying 
weather  is  considered  sufficient  to  so  season  a  stone  as  to  place 
it  beyond  danger  from  frost. 

Great  outcry  has  from  time  to  time  been  raised  against  the 
Portland  stone  on  account  of  its  disposition  to  scale  or  flake  off 
when  laid  in  exposed  places.  While  it  is  undoubtedly  true 
that  much  of  it  is  unfit  for  carved  work  in  exposed  situations, 
still  the  author  can  but  feel  that  the  architect  and  builder  are 
largely  responsible  for  the  many  ruined  fronts  caused  by  this 
scaling,  to  be  seen  in  New  York  and  elsewhere.  It  is  the 
almost  invariable  custom  in  building  to  split  the  stone  with  the 
grain  into  slabs  but  a  few  inches  thick  and  to  veneer  the  walls 
of  buildings  with  these  slabs  placed  on  edge.  Let  thicker 
blocks  be  used  and  the  stone  laid  on  its  bed,  as  nature  laid  it 
down  in  the  quarry,  and  this  defect  will  prove  less  serious,  if  it 
be  not  entirely  remedied.  But  no  stone  that  is  capable  of 
absorbing  so  large  a  percentage  of  water,  as  is  much  of  the 
Connecticut  and  other  of  our  Triassic  stones,  can  be  more  than 
very  moderately  durable  in  the  very  trying  climate  of  our 
Northern  States. 

There  is,  however,  a  vast  difference  in  material  from  the 


26O  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

same  quarry.  I  have  seen  tombstones  perfectly  sound  and 
legible  after  an  exposure  of  nearly  two  hundred  years,  while 
others  begin  to  scale  in  less  than  ten.  The  remarks  made  in 
the  chapter  on  selection  of  stone  are  especially  applicable  here. 

Georgia. — No  sandstones  are  at  present  quarried  in  this 
State,  but  it  is  stated  that  "  the  Chattooga  Mountains  contain 
a  considerable  variety  and  of  various  shades  of  color,  among 
which  are  white,  gray,  buff,  brown,  and  red.  Some  of  these 
exist  in  massive  compact  beds,  while  others  have  a  jointed 
structure  that  make  them  easily  quarried.  The  thickness  of 
the  entire  sandstone  series  is  about  800  feet.  Building  stone 
of  this  character  may  be  had  also  on  Lookout  and  Sand  Moun- 
tains, in  the  Cohutta  range."*  The  writer  has  as  yet  seen  none 
of  the  above. 

Idaho. — The  National  collection  contains  samples  of  a  rather 
coarse,  very  light-colored  sandstone  of  fair  quality  from  Boise 
City,  in  this  State,  but  the  writer  has  no  information  regarding 
their  availability  or  the  extent  of  the  deposits. 

Illinois.- — Carboniferous  sandstones  of  light  and  dark-brown 
color  and  good  quality  are  found  near  Carbondale,  in  this  State. 
The  stone  is  of  medium  texture,  works  readily,  and  closely 
resembles  some  of  the  Triassic  brownstones  of  Connecticut. 
The  beds  are  about  14  feet  thick  and  are  capable  of  furnishing 
blocks  of  large  dimensions.  A  very  fine  grained  light  bluish- 
gray  laminated  stone  is  quarried  in  a  small  way  near  Xenia,  and 
other  sandstones  of  fair  quality  occur  at  Suka,  Marion  County, 
Chester,  Randolph  County,  and  various  points  in  Perry  and 
Greene  Counties. 

Indiana. — The  better  class  of  sandstones  of  Indiana  are 
stated  by  Prof.  Collettf  to  come  from  the  conglomerate  sand- 


*  Commonwealth  of  Georgia,  p.  136. 

f  Twelfth  Annual  Report  State  Geologist,  1882,  p.  20. 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  26 1 

rock  beds  forming  the  base  of  the  coal-measures,  and  occur- 
ring in  a  broad  belt  extending  from  the  Illinois  line,  in  Warren 
County,  south  and  south-east  through  the  counties  of  Foun- 
tain, Vermillion,  Montgomery,  Parke,  Putnam,  Clay,  Owen, 
Green,  Martin,  Pike,  Dubois,  Orange,  Perry,  Crawford,  and 
Harrison  to  the  Ohio  River.  The  beds  in  various  parts  of  this 
area,  though  irregular  in  color  and  physical  characteristics,  pre- 
sent a  very  great  quantity  of  excellent  building  material.  In 
these  beds  in  Warren,  Orange,  Lawrence,  Crawford,  and  Harri- 
son Counties  are  found  also  extensive  beds  of  gritstone  of 
great  utility  for  grind  and  whetstones,  including  the  well-known 
Hindostan  stone,  favorably  known  in  our  own  and  foreign  mar- 
kets.  The  sandstones  of  the  Coal-measures  proper,  while  not 
fully  equal  to  the  above,  are  yet  used  extensively  for  founda- 
tions, piers,  and  other  purposes  of  rough  construction. 

Iowa. — This  State  produces  but  little  of  value  as  building 
material  in  the  way  of  sandstones.  Coarse,  dark-brown  stones 
of  Carboniferous  and  Cretaceous  ages  occur  in  Muscatine  and 
Cass  Counties,  and  have  been  quarried  to  some  extent,  but 
their  qualities  are  not  such  as  to  cause  them  to  be  used  for 
other  than  rough  work  in  the  near  vicinity. 

Kansas. — Good  sandstones  are  stated  by  Professor  Broad- 
head  to  occur  in  several  of  the  counties  in  the  southwestern 
part  of  this  State,  though  so  far  as  we  have  observed,  few  if 
any  of  these  are  of  such  a  quality  as  to  acquire  other  than  a 
local  market.  A  fine,  deep  blue-gray,  laminated  stone  is 
found  at  Parsons,  and  a  brownish  one  at  Oswego,  in  Labette 
County,  also  a  brownstone  at  Pawnee,  Crawford  County,  and 
others  of  various  hues  in  Bourbon,  Neosho,  Montgomery, 
Wilson,  Woodson,  Greene,  and  Elk  Counties. 

Kentucky. — The  sandstones  of  this  State,  so  far  as  shown  by 
the  National  collections,  are  all  of  a  light  color,  fine-grained 
and  rather  soft.  Light  buff  and  pinkish  colors  are  found  in 


262  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

Simpson,  Grayson,  Todd,  Johnson,  and  Breckenridge  Counties, 
some  of  which  are  of  a  beautiful  mellow  tint.  Light  gray 
stones  of  apparent  good  quality,  and  closely  resembling  the 
Berea  of  Ohio,  occur  at  Blue  Lick  Mountain,  Livingston,  in 
Rockcastle  County,  and  in  Pineville,  Bell  County.  The  writer 
is  unable  to  give  further  information  regarding  them. 

Maine. — Maine  is  preeminently  a  granite  State,  producing 
little  of  more  than  local  importance  in  the  way  of  other  build- 
ing stones.  No  sandstone  quarries  are  now  worked  within  the 
State  limits.  Good  freestone  are  said  to  exist  among  the  beds 
of  Devonian  sandstone  in  Washington  County,  and  quarries 
were  at  one  time  worked  near  Perry.  The  stone  is  said  to 
have  been  of  good  quality,  and  to  resemble  the  brownstone  of 
Portland,  Connecticut.  The  red  sandstones  near  Machiasport 
are  also  regarded  as  promising.* 

Maryland. — Sandstone  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  in  demand 
for  other  than  local  uses  is  quarried  in  but  a  single  localty  in 
this  State.  In  Montgomery  County,  near  the  mouth  of  Seneca 
Creek,  about  30  miles  north-west  from  the  city  of  Washington, 
there  occurs  a  considerable  bed  of  Triassic  sandstone,  which  for 
many  years  has  been  quarried,  more  or  less,  to  furnish  material 
for  the  Washington  market.  The  stone  is  as  a  rule  light  red- 
dish-brown in  color,  of  fine  and  even  texture,  and  well  adapted 
for  all  manner  of  building  and  ornamental  work.  The  writer 
has  examined  this  stone,  both  in  the  quarry  and  in  various 
buildings,  and  does  not  hesitate  to  pronounce  it  one  of  the  best 
of  our  Triassic  stones.  Clay  holes  abound  in  some  portions  of 
the  rock,  but  can  be  avoided  by  careful  selection.  The  stone 
is  not  at  all  shaly  and  shows  little,  if  any,  disposition  to  scale 
when  exposed  to  the  weather.  The  Smithsonian  Institution 
building,  erected  in  i848-'54  from  this  stone,  shows  few  defects 


*  Natural  History  and  Geology  of  Maine,  C.  H.  Hitchcock,  1861. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  263 

from  weathering  alone,  and  these  only  in  those  cases  where 
they  might  have  been  avoided  by  judicious  selection.  On 
blocks  of  the  stone  in  the  aqueduct  of  the  Chesapeake  and 
Ohio  Canal  which  have  been  constantly  permeated  by  water 
every  season  for  fifty  years,  the  tool-marks  are  still  fresh  and 
no  signs  of  scaling  are  visible  other  than  are  produced  by  too 
close  contact  at  the  joints. 

Massachusetts. — The  beds  of  Triassic  sandstone,  which  fur- 
nish in  Connecticut  the  well-known  "  Portland  brownstone," 
are  continued  up  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut  River  to  the 
northern  boundary  of  Massachusetts  and  furnish  in  several 
places  valuable  deposits  of  building  material.  At  East  Long 
Meadow,  in  Hampton  County,  quarries  are  worked  in  this 
formation  which  produce  a  rather  finer-grained  stone  than 
that  of  Portland  and  of  a  bright  brick-red  color.  Like  all  the 
Triassic  stones  it  is  soft  and  works  readily,  and  on  account  of 
its  warmth  of  color  can  be  used  with  very  pleasing  effects  in  a 
variety  of  combinations. 

The  extensive  formation  of  Primordial  conglomerate  in 
Dorchester,  Roxbury,  Brookline,  and  other  towns  south  and 
west  of  Boston  furnishes  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  durable 
building  material  for  rough  work,  but  which,  owing  to  its 
coarseness,  is  unsuited  for  ornamental  work  of  any  kind.  The 
stone  is  quite  variable  in  different  localities,  but  may,  as  a 
whole,  be  said  to  consist  of  a  greenish-gray  groundmass  or 
paste  in  which  are  embedded  rounded  pebbles  of  all  sizes  up 
to  several  inches  in  diameter  of  quartz,  granite,  melaphyre, 
felsite,  and  a  variety  of  rock.  This  composition  renders  the 
smooth  dressing  of  the  stone  a  practical  impossibility,  and  it  is 
used  only  in  the  rough  state,  advantage  being  taken  of  the 
numerous  joint  faces,  which  in  building  are  placed  outward, 
thus  forming  a  comparatively  smooth  wall.  The  stone  thus 
forms  a  very  durable  building  material,  and  has  been  used  with 


204  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


good   effect   in   several  churches    and    other  buildings  in  and 
around  Boston. 

Michigan. — According  to  Professor  Conover  *  the  beds  of 
Potsdam  sandstone  occurring  with  frequent  outcrops  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  Upper  Peninsula  in  this  State  are  likely 
to  furnish  the  largest  quantity  and  the  best  quality  of  build- 
ing material  found  within  the  State  limits.  The  stone  quar- 
ried from  this  formation  at  Marquette  is  of  medium  fineness 
of  texture,  of  a  light  brownish-red  color,  often  curiously 
spotted  or  mottled  with  gray.  These  gray  spots  are  generally 
rounded  and  vary  in  size,  according  to  Mr.  Batchen,  from  that 
of  a  pea  to  12  or  18  inches  in  diameter.  These  blotched  por- 
tions are  usually  rejected  in  building,  although  when  used  they 
give  striking  and  not  unpleasant  effects.  The  spots  are  stated 
by  the  above-mentioned  authority  to  be  equally  durable  with 
the  rest  or  colored  portion.  This  stone  is  known  locally  as 
rain-drop  stone,  its  mottled  character  giving  it  the  appearance 
of  having  been  spattered  with  rain-drops  when  in  a  condition 
to  receive  their  impressions.  Similar  stone  is  quarried  at 
L'Anse,  in  Baraga  County.  Their  chief  defects  are  flint  peb- 
bles, which  fly  out  in  process  of  dressing,  and  clay  holes.  Both 
defects  can  be  avoided  by  proper  selection  of  the  stone.  In 
color  the  Marquette  and  L'Anse  stone  are  both  richer  than 
the  Connecticut  or  New  Jersey  brownstones,  and  apparently 
would  prove  more  durable,  although  as  yet  they  have  been  too 
little  used  to  establish  this  point  to  a  certainty.  Besides  the 
localities  mentioned,  these  stones  occur  at  various  places  along 
the  lake  shore  west  of  Keweenaw  Point,  and  also  near  the 
eastern  end  of  the  coast  of  Lake  Superior,  along  the  valley  of 
the  Laughing  Whitefish  River  and  around  it.  At  this  latter 

o  o 

locality  the  stone  is  very  hard,  compact,  heavily  bedded,  split- 
*  Report  Tenth  Census,  vol.  x.,  1880,  p.  227. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  26$ 

ting   readily   into    slabs    of    any   required    thickness,    and    is 
especially  suited  for  heavy  masonry. 

At  Portage  entry  at  the  end  of  the  peninsula  which  sepa- 
rates Portage  River  and  Keweenaw  Bay,  there  is  also  quarried 
a  red  sandstone,  uniform  in  color  and  of  excellent  texture. 
The  rock  is  horizontally  bedded  and  covered  with  16  to  24  feet 
of  soil  and  worthless  rock.  This  stone  has  been  used  in  the 
new  Mining  School  building  at  Houghton,  Michigan.  An 
analysis  of  the  stone  is  given  in  the  tables,  p.  420. 

There  are  also  deposits  of  sandstone  in  the  Coal-measures 
of  Southern  Michigan  which  are  of  very  fair  quality  for  build- 
ing purposes.  The  best  quarries  are  in  Jackson  and  in  Eaton 
Counties,  as  in  Parma  and  Ionia  townships.* 

Minnesota. — According  to  Professor  Winchellf  the  red  sand- 
stones of  Fond  du  Lac  are  the  most  valuable  of  their  kind  that 
the  State  possesses.  They  are  of  the  same  formation  as  the 
New  Ulm  quartzite  described  below,  but  were  less  hardened  at 
the  time  of  their  upheaval.  The  stone  is  of  medium  texture 
and  of  a  brown  or  reddish  color,  closely  resembling  the  Con- 
necticut brownstone,  but  much  harder  and  firmer.  A  similar 
rock  comes  from  Isle  Royal  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  at  the  east- 
ern end  of  Lake  Superior.  At  this  latter  place  it  is  often  mot- 
tled with  gray  or  greenish.  The  stone  consists  almost  wholly 
of  quartz  cemented  with  silica  and  iron  oxides.  Its  crushing 
strength  is  said  to  vary  between  4,000  and  5,000  pounds  per 
square  inch. 

At  New  Ulm  and  in  other  places  in  Cottonwood,  Waton- 
wan,  Rock,  and  Pipestone  Counties,  there  occurs  a  very  hard, 
compact,  red  quartzite,  which  has  been  used  to  some  extent 
for  building  purposes,  though  its  intense  hardness  is  a  great 


*  Annual  Report  Commissioner  of  Mineral  Statistics,  1888,  p.  104. 
f  Geology  of  Minnesota,  vol.  i. 


266  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

drawback,  but  it  is  practically  indestructible  and  hence  valuable. 
In  Pipestone  County  the  rock  occurs  associated  with  the  beau- 
tiful and  interesting  red  pipestone  or  catlinite,  famous  on 
account  of  its  being  used  by  the  Indians  for  pipes  and  orna- 
ments. At  this  point  the  rock  is  jasper  red  in  color  and  very 
hard,  but  is  beginning  to  be  used  for  ashler  work,  producing 
very  striking  effects.  I  am  informed  by  the  quarry  owners 
that  the  entire  bed  at  Pipestone  is  some  75  feet  in  thickness 
and  the  stone  is  quarried  entirely  by  means  of  bars  and  wedges, 
no  explosives  being  necessary.  A  polished  slab  of  the  stone  of 
great  beauty  was  exhibited  at  the  Chicago  Exposition  in  1886. 

In  Courtland  Township,  Nicollett  County,  the  same  quartz- 
ite  occurs  of  a  beautiful  deep  red,  almost  purple,  color. 
Samples  cut  at  the  National  Museum  were  found  to  work  with 
great  difficulty,  but  were  very  beautiful.  The  same  stone,  but 
of  lighter  color,  occurs  at  Sioux  Falls,  South  Dakota.  At 
Dresbach,  in  Winona  County,  there  occurs  a  fine-grained,  rather 
soft,  light  gray  stone  which  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the 
Berea  stone  of  Ohio.  It  is  quarried  to  some  extent  and  is  re- 
garded by  Professor  Winchell  as  promising  of  future  useful- 
ness. A  fine  light-pink  sandstone  occurs  in  Pine  County,  where 
it  is  stated  to  occur  in  heavy  beds  and  to  be  easy  to  quarry. 
It  is  regarded  by  Professor  Winchell  as  fully  equal  to  the 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  freestone.  The  sandstone  occurring  at  Jordan, 
Scott  County,  is  of  a  light  color,  and  while  suitable  for  general 
building  purposes  is  not  regarded  as  fitted  for  first-class  struct- 
ures. 

Mississippi. — Sandstones  of  gray  and  light  buff  color  occur 
in  Jefferson,  Rankin,  and  Tishomingo  Counties,  in  this  State. 
Samples  of  these  were  on  exhibition  at  the  exposition  at  New 
Orleans  in  the  winter  of  i884~'85,  and  from  thence  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  National  collection  at  Washington.  As  shown  by 
these  specimens  the  stones  are  fine-grained,  but  rather  soft  and 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  267 

friable,  and  in  no  way  remarkable  for  their  beauty.  Their  dur- 
ability would  depend  apparently  altogether  on  climatic  influ- 
ences. The  writer  has  no  information  regarding  the  uses  to 
which  the  stones  have  been  put,  if,  indeed,  they  have  as  yet 
been  used  at  all. 

Missouri. — The  best  available  sandstones  of  this  State  be- 
long according  to  Prof.  Broadhead*  to  the  Potsdam  formations 
in  Madison,  Saint  Francois,  and  Iron  Counties  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  State  ;  to  the  sub-Carboniferous  of  Saint 
Genevieve,  Newton,  Cedar,  Pettis,  Howard  and  Cooper  Coun- 
ties, and  to  the  Carboniferous  of  the  south-west,  chiefly  in 
Barton,  Vernon,  Cedar,  Saint  Clair,  Henry,  Johnson  and 
Carroll  Counties.  The  so-called  Second  sandstone  (Lower  Sil- 
urian) occurring  along  the  Osage  River  and  on  the  hills  of  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  State  is  also  stated  to  furnish  a  good 
building  stone. 

One  of  the  best  of  the  above  is  the  fine  light-buff  or  yellow- 
ish sub-Carboniferous  stone  occurring  about  four  miles  from  the 
town  of  Saint  Genevieve.  Some  twenty-five  feet  of  good  qual- 
ity of  rock  in  beds  of  from  eighteen  inches  to  five  feet  in  thick- 
ness is  here  exposed,  and  which  will  afford  blocks  of  any 
desired  size  and  shape  within  these  limits.  The  stone  has 
shown  good  weathering  qualities  in  the  climate  of  St.  Louis, 
but  is  stated  to  be  discolored  badly  by  smoke.  Near  Miami 
Station,  in  Carroll  County,  and  Warrensburgh  in  Johnson 
County,  the  Carboniferous  beds  furnish  fine  gray  sandstone 
which  when  well  selected,  is  said  to  be  good  and  durable. 
That  at  Miami  frequently  carries  concretionary  masses  which 
weather  out  on  exposure. 

The  Johnson  County  sandstone  is  stated  to  be  of  good 


*  Report  Tenth  Census  vol.  x.  p.  270  :  also  Building  Trades  Journal,  Aug. 

1888. 


268  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

quality  in  certain  situations.  It  has  been  used  in  several  im- 
portant structures  in  the  State,  and  stands  the  test  of  time 
without  scaling,  only  becoming  stained  and  darkened  with  age. 
It  is  quite  light,  weighing  only  140  pounds  per  cubic  foot  when 
seasoned,  or  145  to  150  pounds  when  freshly  quarried. 

Montana. — A  fine  light-gray  Cretaceous  sandstone  some- 
what resembling  the  well-known  stone  of  Berea,  Ohio,  occurs 
in  considerable  abundance  in  Rocky  Canon,  Gallatin  County, 
and  is  coming  into  general  use  in  Boseman.  The  writer  is  in- 
formed* that  it  can  be  obtained  in  blocks  of  large  dimensions, 
and  that  it  works  readily  when  first  quarried,  but  hardens  on 
exposure,  though,  like  the  Ohio  stone,  it  stains  with  reddish 
streaks  from  oxidation  of  pyrite.  A  compact  red  quartzite 
from  near  Salesville,  west  of  the  west  Gallatin,  is  also  coming 
into  use  to  some  extent.  A  fine,  very  light  stone  of  uncertain 
age  is  also  quarried  near  Dillon  for  use  in  Butte,  Deer  Lodge 
County.  So  recently  has  the  State  become  settled  that  there 
has  as  yet  arisen  but  little  demand  for  other  materials  than 
wood  for  building.  The  great  scarcity  of  this  article  in  the 
most  thickly  settled  portions  of  the  State,  together  with  the 
abundance  of  easy-working,  but  in  so  dry  a  climate,  durable 
sandstone,  will  doubtless  bring  about  a  radical  change  within 
a  very  few  years. 

Nebraska. — An  intensely  hard  Cretaceous  quartzite  furnish- 
ing stone  for  heavy  foundations  and  general  building,  is  stated 
by  Augheyf  to  occur  in  Dakota  County,  this  State.  Fine 
grained  micaceous  sandstone  suitable  for  both  flagging  and 
building  is  also  found  in  Nemaha  County. 

Nevada. — A  coarse,  gray,  friable  stone  is  quarried  at  Carson, 
in  this  State,  but  it  is  unfit  for  any  sort  of  fine  work  or  found- 
ation, owing  to  its  softness  and  porosity. 

*  By  Dr.  A.  C.  Peale,  United  States  Geological  Survey. 
f  Physical  Geography  and  Geoiogy  of  Nebraska. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  269 

New  Jersey. — The  largest  and  most  extensively  worked 
quarries  of  stone  of  any  kind  in  this  State  are  in  the  Triassic 
belt  of  red  or  brown  sandstone  which  extends  from  the  New 
York  line  in  a.  general  southwesterly  direction  across  the  State 
to  the  Delaware  River.  The  principal  quarries  are  in  various 
towns  in  Passaic,  Essex,  Hunterdon,  and  Mercer  Counties. 
The  stone,  like  that  of  Connecticut  and  other  Triassic  areas 
described,  is  a  granitic  sandstone,  cemented  by  iron  oxides, 
silica,  and  carbonate  of  lime ;  the  colors  varying  from  light 
brownish-gray  to  reddish-brown.  As  shown  in  the  National 
collections,  the  stone  is  as  a  rule  of  finer  texture  than  that  of 
Connecticut,  and  less  distinctly  laminated,  consequently  scaling 
less  readily  when  exposed  to  atmospheric  agencies.  Accord- 
ing to  Professor  Cook,*  this  stone  has  been  used  from  an  early 
date  in  Bergen,  Passaic,  and  Essex  Counties  for  building  pur- 
poses and  for  monuments  and  gravestones,  where  it  has  shown 
good  proof  of  its  durability.  It  has  also  been  very  extensively 
used  in  New  York  and  neighboring  cities.  At  the  quarries,  as 
is  usually  the  case,  the  surface  stone  is  found  more  or  less 
broken  up  and  blocks  of  small  size  only  can  be  obtained,  but 
the  beds  become  more  solid  as  they  are  followed  downward. 
At  some  of  the  Belleville  quarries  blocks  containing  1,000 
cubic  feet  have  been  broken  out.  In  one  of  these  quarries 
over  2  acres  have  been  excavated  to  an  average  depth  of  60 
feet.  Some  of  the  quarries,  as  at  Passaic,  produce  stone  of 
several  varieties  of  color,  as  light  brown,  dark  brown,  and  light 
gray ;  the.  fine-grained  dark  brown  is  usually  considered  the 
best  and  is  the  most  sought.  In  several  of  the  quarries  trap 
rock  (diabase)  also  occurs. 

New  Mexico. — In  the  vicinity  of  Las  Vegas  Hot  Springs 
and  Albuquerque  occur  beds  of  light  gray,  brown,  and  pink 


Annual  Report  State  Geologists,  iS8i,  p.  43. 


2/O  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

sandstone,  of  fine  texture  arrd  apparently  excellent  quality. 
They  are  not  as  yet  much  used,  owing  simply  to  lack  of  de- 
mand for  stone  of  any  kind.  A  soft,  very  light  gray  volcanic 
tuff  occurs  at  Santa  Fe,  which  may  prove  of  value  for  building 
purposes  in  a  dry  climate,  or  one  where  the  temperature  does 
not  often  fall  below  the  freezing  point. 

New  York. — The  principal  sandstones  now  quarried  in  this 
State  may  be  divided  into  three  groups,  belonging  to  three  dis- 
tinct geological  horizons,  each  group  possessing  characteristics 
peculiar  to  itself  and  so  pronounced  as  to  be  readily  recognized 
thereby. 

The  first  of  these  belong  to  the  Hamilton  period  of  the 
Devonian  formations,  and  are  fine-grained,  compact,  dark  blue- 
gray  stones,  very  strong  and  durable.*  They  give  a  pro- 
nounced clayey  odor  when  breathed  upon,  and  have  been 
designated  greywackes  by  Professor  Julien,  though  popularly 
known  as  "  bluestones  "  on  account  of  their  color.  The  second 
group  belongs  to  the  Medina  period  of  the  Upper  Silurian  for- 
mations. These  stones  are  largely  siliceous,  of  coarser,  more 
distinctly  granular  texture  than  the  last,  and  are  of  a  gray  or 
red  color.  The  third  and  last  group  belongs  to  the  Potsdam 
period  of  the  Cambrian  formations.  Like  the  Medina  stone, 
they  are  largely  siliceous,  and  contain  a  much  larger  propor- 
tion of  siliceous  cementing  material.  These  are  usually  light 
red  or  nearly  white,  and  intensely  hard  and  refractory. 

*  Microscopic  examination  has  shown  the  Devonian  sandstones  of  New 
York  to  consist  chiefly  of  "  angular  to  subangular  grains  of  quartz  and  feldspar, 
with  their  interstices  occupied  by  smaller  grains  of  magnetite,  scales  of  chlor- 
ite, and  particularly  short  fibres  of  hornblende  interlacing  the  grains  of  the 
other  constituents.  The  result  is  an  'argillaceous  sandstone,'  flagstone,  or 
greywacke,  peculiarly  compact  and  impermeable,  which  has  retained  its  fresh 
condition  to  an  extent  which  could  not  otherwise  have  been  expected  from  an 
aggregate  so  liable  to  ready  decomposition."  A.  A.  Julien  in  Proc.  A.  A.  A.  S., 
vol.  xxvui,  1879,  P-  372* 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  2? I 

Discussing  each  group  more  in  detail,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  "  bluestone  "  district  is  confined  to  comparatively  narrow 
limits  west  of  the  Hudson  River,  and  mainly  to  Albany,  Green, 
and  Ulster  Counties.  It  begins  in  Schoharie  County,  passes  to 
the  south-east  and  enters  Albany  County  near  Berne,  and  from 
there  passes  around  to  the  south  and  south-west  across  Green, 
Ulster,  and  Sullivan  Counties,  and  across  the  west  end  of 
Orange  County  to  the  Delaware  River  and  into  Pike  County, 
Pennsylvania.* 

The  typical  bluestone  belongs  to  the  Hamilton  period,  and 
is  a  fine-grained,  compact,  tough,  and  eminently  durable  rock 
of  a  deep,  dark  blue-gray  color.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  it 
occurs  usually  in  thin  beds  and  splits  out  readily  in  slabs  but  a 
few  inches  thick,  it  has  been  used  very  extensively  for  flagging, 
curbs,  sills,  caps,  steps,  etc.  Its  sombre  color  is  something  of 
a  drawback  to  its  use  for  general  building  purposes.  As  a  rule 
the  quarries  are  shallow  affairs,  and  the  work  carried  on  by  the 
crudest  possible  methods.  At  Quarryville,  Ulster  County,  the 
quarries  have  been  worked  for  upwards  of  forty  years,  and  vast 
quantities  of  the  material  removed.  The  quarries  lie  in  lines 
along  three  parallel  ledges,  which  have  a  general  north-east  and 
south-west  direction,  the  beds  of  sandstone  overlying  each  other 
from  west  to  east,  with  strata  of  slate  and  hard  sandstone 
between  them.  The  quarries  in  the  easternmost  ledge  extend 
about  a  mile  in  length,  175  feet  in  width,  and  have  been  worked 
to  an  average  depth  of  about  12  feet.  In  the  middle  ledge  the 
line  of  quarries  extends  over  an  area  about  i^  miles  in  length, 
150  to  500  feet  in  width,  and  have  been  quarried  to  a  depth  of 
from  12  to  20  feet.  Quite  heavy  beds  occur  in  some  of  the 
quarries,  and  the  joints  allow  blocks  of  very  large  size  to  be 
obtained.  In  the  western  ledge  the  quarries  are  in  a  line  some 

*  Report  of  the  Tenth  Census,  vol.  x,  1880,  p.  130. 


2/2  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

I,OOO  feet  long  by  150  wide,  and  are  worked  to  an  average 
depth  of  about  12  feet.  The  total  thickness  of  the  layers  in 
this  region  is  from  4  to  20  feet,  and  the  stripping  from  6  to  17 
feet  in  depth.  In  working  the  quarries  but  little  capital  is  re- 
quired beyond  the  value  of  the  necessary  tools,  they  being 
commonly  leased  and  royalty  paid  at  the  rate  of  one-half  cent 
per  square  foot  of  stone  quarried.  The  larger  size  of  blocks 
have  dimensions  of  about  15  by  8  feet,  though  some  20  by  15 
feet  have  been  taken  out.  At  the  time  of  taking  the  census  in 
1880  there  were  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  quarries 
within  the  bluestone  district  as  given  above.  All,  however, 
agree  so  closely  with  those  of  Quarryville,  that  further  descrip- 
tion seems  unnecessary. 

The  quarry  district  in  the  Medina  sandstone  extends  from 
Brockport,  Monroe  County,  to  Lockport,  Niagara  County. 
The  stone  is,  as  a  rule,  moderately  fine-grained  in  texture, 
hard,  and  of  a  gray  or  red  color,  the  red  variety  being  most 
used  for  building  purposes,  while  the  gray  is  used  in  street 
paving.  The  red  variety  has  a  bright  and  pleasing  appearance ; 
both  red  and  gray  are  sometimes  used  together,  with  good 
effect.  Most  of  the  stone  buildings  in  Lockport  and  Buffalo 
are  of  the  Medina  stone.  The  most  important  feature  of  the 
stone  is,  however,  its  adaptability  for  street-paving,  in  place  of 
the  usual  granite  or  trap  blocks.  It  is  said  that  the  sandstone 
blocks  have  the  advantage  of  not  wearing  smooth,  as  do  the 
granites  and  traps,  while  at  the  same  time  they  are  nearly  if 
not  quite  as  durable. 

The  stratum  of  quarry  rock  is  put  at  about  30  feet  in  thick- 
ness, the  different  layers  of  which  vary  in  thickness  from  18  to 
30  inches. 

Three  miles  south  of  the  town  of  Potsdam,  in  Saint  Law- 
rence County,  the  Raquette  River  cuts  across  the  Potsdam 
formation,  and  quarries  are  worked  along  the  banks  of  the 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  2/3 

stream.  The  outcrops  at  this  point  are  some  2  miles  in  width 
from  north  to  south.  In  the  quarry  the  strata  dip  to  the  south 
at  an  angle  of  about  45°,  the  beds  increasing  in  thickness  some- 
what from  the  top  downward,  until  at  a  depth  of  40  feet  they 
are  some  2  or  3  feet  in  thickness.  In  color  the  stone  is  light 
reddish  or  reddish-brown,  and  though,  when  first  quarried,  soft 
enough  to  work  economically,  becomes  most  intensely  hard  on 
seasoning. 

I  consider  this,  from  the  standpoint  of  durability,  almost 
an  ideal  stone.  Composed  w'holly  of  quartz 'grains,  it  has,  by 
deposition  of  interstitial  silica,  become  converted  into  a  com- 
pact quartzite,  impregnated  with  just  enough  iron  oxide  to 
give  it  a  reddish  or  brownish-red  color.  (See  Fig.  5,  Plate  II.) 
It  is  therefore  practically  non-absorptive,  and  its  surface  affords 
no  foothold  for  growing  organism.  Strong  as  the  strongest 
granite  and  not  liable  to  chemical  disintegration  from  atmos- 
pheric agencies,  the  stone  deserves  even  a  wider  recognition 
than  it  has  yet  received.  Stone  from  these  quarries  has  been 
used  in  many  churches  and  private  residences  in  Potsdam,  in 
the  buildings  of  Columbia  College  in  New  York  City,  All 
Saints  Cathedral  in  Albany,  and  in  the  Dominion  Houses  of 
Parliament  in  Ottawa,  Canada. 

At  Fort  Ann,  in  the  same  county,  the  quartzite  is  much 
lights,  in  color  and  composed  of  almost  pure  silica,  there  being 
an  almost  entire  absence  of  iron  oxides  in  the  cementing  ma- 
terial. The  stone  is,  as  a  consequence,  extremely  hard,  but 
equally  tough  and  durable  with  that  above  described. 

At  Port  Henry,  in  Essex  County,  the  Potsdam  quartzite 
crops  out  at  the  side  of  the  railroad  and  in  the  hillsides  west 
of  the  town.  The  rock  is  here  light  gray  in  color  and  rather 
brittle.  In  the  quarry  bed  the  rock  is  divided  by  irregular 
vertical  joints  with  smooth  surfaces,  so  that  quarrying  can  be 
carried  on  wholly  by  wedging  and  without  the  use  of  powder. 


274  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

The  stone  is  used  mainly  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  A  similar 
stone  occurs  at  Keeseville  and  at  Ausable  Chasm.  It  is  thin 
bedded  and  can  be  quarried  to  supply  the  local  demand  merely 
by  the  use  of  bars.  It  is  used  largely  for  flagging,  and  shows 
frequently  very  perfect  ripple-marking  and  cross-bedding. 

North  Carolina. — The  narrow  belt  of  Triassic  sandstone 
already  mentioned  as  passing  through  this  State  furnishes  fine, 
compact,  light  and  dark  reddish-brown  stone  of  a  quality  not 
at  all  inferior  to  any  of  that  in  the  more  northern  and  eastern 
States. 

At  Wadesborough,  in  Anson  County,  the  stone  lies  in  beds 
from  2  to  10  feet  in  thickness,  which  are  inclined  at  an  angle 
of  about  25°  from  the  horizontal.  It  is  of  fine,  even  grain, 
quite  massive,  and  of  dark  brown  and  reddish  colors.  Hereto- 
fore it  has  been  used  chiefly  for  railroad  work  and  for  steps  and 
general  trimming  purposes  in  Charlotte  and  Wilmington,  but  is 
worthy  of  a  wider  application.  Within  the  past  four  years 
steps  have  been  taken  to  introduce  it  into  the  markets  of 
Washington  and  other  of  our  eastern  cities.  The  chemical 
composition  and  crushing  strength  are  given  in  the  tables. 

At  Sanford  the  stone  is  of  a  brown  color  and  is  said  to  lie 
in  the  quarries  in  nearly  horizontal  strata  from  I  to  5  feet  in 
thickness.  The  stone  from  near  Egypt  is  quite  similar  in  ap- 
pearance. Near  Durham  it  becomes  in  part  of  a  gray  color, 
but  otherwise  is  little  different.  This  stone  has  been  used  in 
Raleigh  for  upwards  of  thirty  years,  and  shows  itself  to  be 
strong  and  durable. 

Ohio. — According  to  Professor  Orton,  *  those  rocks  of  the 
sub-Carboniferous  period,  called  by  the  Ohio  Geological  Sur- 
vey the  Waverly  group,  are  the  most  important  as  to  produc- 
tion of  building  stone  in  the  geological  scale  of  this  State. 

*  Report  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Ohio,  vol.  v,  p.  578. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  2?$ 

The  following  section  shows  the  arrangement  of  this  forma- 
tion : 


1.  Maxville  limestones,  in  patches. 

2.  Logan  group. 

3.  Cuyahoga  shale. 


4.  Berea  shale. 

5.  Berea  grit. 

6.  Bedford  shale. 


Of  these,  number  I  occurs  but  seldom.  Number  2  consists 
of  fine-grained  sandstones  overlying  and  alternating  with  mas- 
sive conglomerate  in  the  central  and  southern  part  of  the 
State.  In  thickness  about  100  feet.  The  Waverly  conglom- 
erate is  a  member  of  this  group.  Number  3,  about  300  feet  in 
thickness,  is  a  blue  argillaceous  shale  in  many  parts  of  the 
State,  but  in  many  places  contains  scattered  courses  of  sand- 
stone of  great  value.  Number  4  is  from  10  to  30  feet  thick, 
and  number  5  is  the  Berea  grit,  the  great  quarry  rock  of  north- 
ern Ohio.  This  formation  is  from  10  to  75  feet  in  thickness, 
and  extends  in  a  belt  from  Williamsfield,  in  the  southeastern 
corner  of  Ashtabula  County,  westward  into  Erie  County,  and 
thence  nearly  directly  southward  in  Adams  County  to  the  Ohio 
River.  The  stratum  of  sandstone  where  it  is  best  developed 
consists  of  heavy  sheets,  with  often  a  course  at  the  top  of  thin, 
broken  layers,  called  shell  rock,  and  of  no  v*alue  for  building 
stone.  Number  6  is  from  10  to  100  feet  in  thickness,  and  fur- 
nishes no  building  stone,  excepting  in  Cuyahoga  County,  where 
it  yields  the  well-known  "  Euclid  bluestone." 

The  Berea  grit,  as  quarried  for  building  purposes,  may  be 
described  as  a  fine-grained  homogeneous  sandstone,  of  a  very 
light  buff,  gray  or  blue-gray  color,  and  very  evenly  bedded,  the 
individual  sheets  varying  from  a  few  inches  to  10  or  more  feet 
in  thickness.  In  many  places  this  evenness  of  bedding  is 
especially  remarkable,  as  in  some  of  the  quarries  of  Trumbull 
County,  where  blocks  of  stone  10  feet  square  and  only  ij- 
inches  thick  have  been  extracted,  and  with  surfaces  so  smooth 


2/6  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

and  straight  that  a  straight-edge  laid  upon  them  would  touch 
at  every  point.  Slabs  but  I  or  2  inches  in  thickness  are  said 
-to  have  such  strength  that  they  go  into  general  use  without 
question.  In  one  case  a  strip  150  feet  long,  5  feet  wide,  and 
but  3  inches  thick  was  reported  as  raised  intact  from  the 
quarry  bed.  The  various  layers,  although  closely  compacted, 
are,  however,  perfectly  distinct,  adhering  to  one  another 
"  scarcely  more  than  sawn  planks  in  a  pile." 

Like  many  of  the  sandstones  of  this  horizon,  the  Berea  grits 
contain  but  little  cementing  material,  the  various  particles 
being  held  together  mainly  by  cohesion  induced  by  the  press- 
ure to  which  they  were  subjected  at  the  time  of  their  consoli- 
dation. They  are,  therefore,  soft,  working  readily  in  any  direc- 
tion, and  are  particularly  sought  for  carving. 

This  property  also  renders  the  stone  of  especial  value  for 
the  manufacture  of  grindstones,  since  the  presence  of  a  cement 
will  nearly  always  cause  a  stone  to  glaze  and  its  cutting  power 
be  thereby  nearly  if  not  quite  destroyed.  Unfortunately  the 
Berea  stone  nearly  always  contains  more  or  less  sulphide  of 
iron  (pyrite)  and  needs  to  be  selected  with  care.  The  best 
varieties  will  usually  become  yellowish  on  long  exposure,  but 
this  is  not  in  all  cases  injurious.  Indeed,  this  property  of 
"  mellowing  with  age"  is  now  claimed  as  one  of  the  good  qual- 
ities of  the  stone.  When,  however,  the  pyrite  occurs  in  such 
quantities  as  to  produce  by  its  oxidation  unsightly  blotches  its 
presence  is,  of  course,  objectionable. 

The  principal  quarries  of  the  stone  at  present  writing  are 
situated  in  the  towns  of  Amherst,  Berea,  East  Cleveland,  Ilyria, 
and  Independence  in  Lorain  and  Cuyahoga  Counties. 

At  Amherst  the  quarries  are  located  in  a  series  of  ledges 
which  were  once  the  shore  cliffs  of  Lake  Erie.  The  elevated 
position  of  the  stones  is  a  great  advantage,  since  the  light  and 
uniform  color  seems  due  to  the  fact  that  this  elevation  pro- 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


277 


duces  a  free  drainage,  and  the  stones  have  been  traversed  by 
atmospheric  waters  to  such  a  degree  that  all  processes  of  oxi- 
dation which  are  possible  have  been  very  nearly  completed. 
The  stone  here  as  elsewhere  varies  considerably  in  character 
and  solidity  within  limited  distances.  The  following  section 
of  one  of  the  Amherst  quarries  is  given  by  Professor  Orton  : 


Feet. 

Drift  material i  to    3 

Worthless  shell-rock 6  to  10 

Soft  rock  for  grindstones  only.          12 

Building  stone 3 

Bridge  stone 2 


Feet. 

Grindstone 2 

Building  and  grindstone 10 

Building  stone 4    to   7 

Building  stone  -or  grindstone.  12 


Nearly  all  of  the  quarries  exhibit  this  diversity  of  material, 
although  the  order  of  arrangement  is  not  always  the  same. 
The  colors  are  light  buff  and  bluish  gray,  the  buff  stone  occurr- 
ing above  the  line  of  perfect  drainage  and  extending  down  as- 
far  as  the  2  feet  of  bridge  stone,  forming  a  total  thickness  of  27 
feet.  In  most  of  the  Amherst  quarries  the  relative  amount  of 
buff  stone  is  greater.  Difference  in  color  and  texture  has  given 
rise  to  various  local  names  which  may  be  mentioned  here.  The 
colors  are  denominated  simply  by  "  blue  "  and  "  buff."  The 
regularly  and  evenly  stratified  stone  is  called  "  Split  rock ;" 
that  in  which  the  stratification  is  irregular  and  marked  by  fine 
transverse  and  wavy  lines  is  called  "  Spider  web,"  and  the 
homogeneous  stone  showing  little  or  no  stratification  is  called 
"  Liver  rock." 

As  regards  composition  the  stone  contains  usually  about  95 
per  cent  of  silica  v/ith  small  amounts  of  lime,  magnesia,  iron 
oxides,  alumina,  and  alkalies.  Analysis  has  shown  them  to 
contain  from  5.83  to  7.75  per  cent  of  water  when  first  taken 
from  the  quarry,  and  from  3.39  to  4.28  per  cent  when  dry. 
The  quarries  can  be  operated  only  about  eight  months  of  the 
year  owing  to  the  injury  caused  by  freezing  when  the  stone  is 
full  of  its  quarry  water. 


2/8  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

In  the  town  of  Berea  nearly  40  acres  of  territory  have  been 
quarried  over  to  an  average  depth  of  40  feet.  The  stratum  is 
65  to  75  feet  in  thickness,  the  individual  sheets  varying  from  2 
inches  to  10  feet.  The  stone  is  as  a  rule  a  little  darker  than 
the  Amherst  bluestone.  It  is  used  mostly  for  building  pur- 
poses, though  grindstones  and  whetstones  are  also  manufact- 
ured quite  extensively. 

The  well  known  "  Euclid  bluestone  "  is  obtained  from  the 
Bedford  shale  formation  in  Newburgh  and  Euclid,  Cuyahoga 
County.  The  stone  differs  from  the  Berea  in  being  of  finer 
and  more  compact  texture,  and  of  a  deep  blue-gray  color. 
Like  the  Berea  stone,  however,  it  unfortunately  contains  con- 
siderable quantities  of  pyrite,  and,  as  a  general  thing,  is  not  a 
safe  stone  for  other  than  bridge-work  and  foundations  or  flag- 
ging, for  which  last  purpose  it  is  eminently  suited.  Even  when 
free  from  pyrite  it  does  not  weather  in  uniform  colors,  and 
needs  always  to  be  selected  with  great  caution. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Marietta  and  Constitution,  in  Washington 
County,  a  fine-grained  buff  and  blue-gray  sandstone,  belonging 
to  the  Upper  Coal-measures  series,  is  quite  extensively  quarried 
for  grindstones  and  building  purposes.  Different  portions  of 
the  stratum  furnish  stone  of  all  varieties  of  texture  for  wet 
grinding,  and  the  grind  stones  are  shipped  to  all  manufacturing 
points  in  the  United  States.  The  principal  market  for  the  build- 
ing-stone is  in  Marietta  and  various  towns  along  the  Ohio  River. 

At  Piketown  there  is  quarried  a  very  pretty,  fine-grained 
brown-stone,  soft  and  easy  to  work,  and  apparently  fairly  dur- 
able. It  has  been  used  in  some  of  the  finest  stone  fronts  in 
Columbus,  in  this  State. 

According  to  Professor  Orton,  however,  this  stone  is  brown 
only  on  the  outcrop,  and  a  few  feet  from  the  surface  it  assumes 
a  dark  blue-gray  color,  and  loses  its  value  as  an  ornamental 
stone,  since  it  contains  a  large  amount  of  soluble  iron  protox- 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION,  279 

ide,  which  produces  bad  discoloration  on  exposure.  An  analy- 
sis of  this  stone  is  given  in  the  tables. 

Oregon. — Two  miles  south  of  Oakland,  Douglas  County,  in 
this  State,  there  occurs  an  extensive  deposit  of  a  fine,  dark 
blue-gray  sandstone,  which  changes  to  a  drab  color  on  expos- 
ure. It  occurs  in  layers  of  17  to  36  inches  in  thickness,  parted 
by  shaly  seams,  and  is  readily  quarried  by  means  of  wedges. 
Quarries  were  opened  in  1879,  but  have  not  been  extensively 
worked  as  yet.  A  fine-grained  sandstone,  said  to  be  suitable 
for  either  building  or  ornamental  work,  also  occurs  about  14 
miles  from  Portland,  in  Clackamas  County.  It  has  been  quar- 
ried since  1866,  and  used  in  some  prominent  structures  in  Port- 
land. 

Pennsylvania. — The  belt  of  Triassic  sandstones  passing 
through  southeastern  Pennsylvania  is  described  as  beginning  at 
the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson  River  and  extending  in  a  broad 
belt  from  the  Bay  of  New  York  to  the  base  of  the  first  ledges 
of  the  Highlands,  being  bounded  on  the  north-west  by  this 
chain  and  its  continuation.  To  the  southwestward  it  traverses 
New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and,  in  a  somewhat  in- 
terrupted manner,  Virginia  and  part  of  North  Carolina,  its  total 
length  being  not  less  than  500  miles,  and  of  a  width  varying 
from  10  to  50  miles.  The  principal  quarry  in  this  formation  in 
Pennsylvania  is  situated  on  the  south  side  of  a  hill  in  Hum- 
melstown,  Dauphin  County,  the  stone  dipping  to  the  north  at 
an  angle  of  about  40°  and  the  ledge  being  about  85  feet  in 
thickness.  The  rock  is  evenly  bedded,  the  courses  varying 
from  3  to  10  feet  in  thickness,  the  joints  regular  and  from  4  to 
40  feet  apart,  so  that  blocks  of  any  practicable  size  can,  it  is 
said,  be  obtained.  The  texture  is  about  medium  fineness,  and 
the  color  a  deep  bluish  brown,  slightly  purple.  The  topmost 
layers  are,  however,  of  a  reddish  brown  color,  closely  resem- 
bling the  Portland  stone.  The  stone  compares  very  favorably 


28O  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

with  any  of  the  Triassic  stones,  its  chief  defect,  so  far  as  the 
author  has  observed,  being  occasional  clay  holes,  which  some- 
times have  an  unpleasant  way  of  making  their  presence  known 
in  unexpected  and  undesirable  places.  The  Hummelstown 
stone  is  now  in  very  general  use  in  all  our  principal  eastern 
cities. 

According  to  D'Invilliers,*  the  main  b.ulk  of  good  stone 
from  this  formation  in  the  Lebanon  Valley  seems  to  be  con- 
fined to  that  portion  of  the  territory  lying  south  of  Hummels- 
town and  Swatara,  though  there  is  little  doubt  but  a  larger 
field  could  be  secured  on  more  active  search.  At  any  one 
place,  however,  the  good  stone  seems  to  be  fairly  limited,  not 
so  much  on  the  line  of  dip  as  along  the  strike,  and  it  is  pre- 
sumably not  possible  to  locate  an  indefinite  number  of  quarries 
on  any  one  bed.  It  is,  moreover,  pretty  well  assured  that 
beds  of  good  stone  are  to  be  found  in  different  parts  of  the 
formation,  the  two  large  quarries  immediately  south  of  Hum- 
melstown being  certainly  worked  on  beds  separated  by  several 
hundred  feet  of  measure  and  both  dipping  conformably  north- 
ward toward  the  valley.  At  the  Hummelstown  brownstone 
quarry  the  following  section  is  given  by  the  above-named 
authority : 

(1)  Shale  and  thin  sandstone  ;  stripping 

(2)  Sandstone 20  feet. 

(3)  Shale  and  slate I  foot. 

(4)  Sandstone 15  feet. 

(5)  Shale 10  feet  to  i  to  6. 

(6)  Sandstone 22  feet. 

(7)  Shale  and  slate o  to  6  feet. 

(8)  Sandstone,  red  and  massive f 15  feet. 

Such  a  section  will  not,  however,  hold  good  over  any  ex- 
tent of  territory,  and  even  in  any  one  quarry  there  is  likely  to 

*  Annual  Report  Pennsylvania  Geological  Survey,  1886,  part  iv. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  28 1 

be  considerable  variation.     At  the  quarries  of  Francis  Painter 
&  Co.  the  following  section  is  given : 

(1)  Loose  soli  and  sandstone  in  blocks 6  feet. 

(2)  Red  shale,  poor  and  worthless 8  " 

(3)  Thin  bedded  sandstone  and  shale 12  " 

(4)  Massive  sandstone,  top  layer 4  " 

(5)  Red  slate  seam,  thin I  " 

(6)  Sandstone,  bottom  layer 3  " 

(7)  Slate    o    "    6  in. 

(8)  Massive  sandstone  bed;  best  stone 15  " 

(9)  Sandstone,  lower  bed,  good 4  "    6  in. 

Stone  from  the  same  formation  as  the  above  and  differing, 
if  at  all,  only  in  slight  color  and  textural  peculiarities  is  quar- 
ried more  or  less  in  other  towns  along  the  belt,  particularly 
Goldsborough,  Reading,  Bridgeport,  and  several  towns  in 
Bucks  County. 

The  Carboniferous  sandstones  of  Pennsylvania  are  little 
quarried  excepting  for  local  use,  although  occasionally  of  good 
quality.  Near  Pittsburgh  and  Allegheny,  and  other  towns  in 
Allegheny  County,  there  are  many  quarries  which  produce 
gray  stone  of  medium  texture  and  of  apparently  good  quality. 
They  are  said,  however,  to  weather  unevenly,  owing  to  the 
presence  of  calcareous  matter,  and  to  be  very  sensitive  to  frost 
when  first  quarried.  In  several  places  in  Westmoreland 
County  the  stones  of  this  age  are  of  a  gray,  reddish,  or  brown- 
ish color,  fine  grained  and  of  good  quality.  They  are  used  to 
some  extent  for  building  and  also  for  flagging  and  paving. 

The  sub-Carboniferous  formations,  so  valuable  in  Ohio  for 
the  building  stone  they  supply,  are  in  this  State  of  little  value, 
or  at  least  up  to  date  have  been  but  little  quarried  for  purposes 
of  construction.  At  Venango,  in  Franklin  County,  a  fine- 
grained, evenly-bedded  buff  stone,  somewhat  resembling  the 
buff  varieties  of  the  Berea  grit,  is  quarried  for  sidewalks  and 


282  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

buildings  in  the  near  vicinity.  Other  quarries  are  located  at 
Titusville,  and  also  at  Uniontown,  Altoona,  and  Scranton. 

Aside  from  the  Triassic  stones,  the  most  important  sand- 
stones at  present  quarried  in  the  State  are  from  the  Devonian 
formations.  In  several  towns  in  Pike,  Carbon,  Luzerne,  Wyo- 
ming, Susquehanna,  and  other  counties,  stones  belonging  to 
this  formation,  of  a  fine,  compact  texture  and  dark  blue-gray 
color,  are  quite  extensively  quarried.  So  far  as  can  be  judged 
from  the  material  examined,  this  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
stones  in  the  State  for  building  as  well  as  for  flagging  purposes. 
The  Wyoming  County  stone  is  known  to  the  trade  as  "  Wyom- 
ing Valley  stone,"  and  is  in  considerable  demand.  It  agrees 
very  closely  in  general  appearance  with  much  of  the  New  York 
bluestone  already  described. 

South  Dakota. — The  pink  and  red  quartzite  from  Sioux 
Falls  in  this  State  is  one  of  the  most  promising  stones  of  the 
West.  Chemically  the  stone  is  almost  pure  silica,  with  only 
enough  iron  oxide  to  impart  color  to  it.  It  is  so  close  grained 
as  to  be  practically  impervious  to  moisture,  so  strong  as  to 
endure  a  pressure  of  25,000  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  and 
will  take  a  polish  almost  like  glass,  with  which  it  may  favorably 
compare  in  durability.  In  color  the  stone  varies  from  light 
pink  to  jasper  red,  and  it  is  one  of  the  few  stones  at  present 
quarried  in  the  United  States  which  is  equally  well  adapted 
for  rough  building  and  for  ornamental  work,  both  interior  and 
exterior.  Professor  Winchell,  in  reporting  upon  this  stone, 
states  that  it  bears  a  heat  up  to  that  of  redness  without  crack- 
ing or  scaling.  The  stone  has  been  introduced  into  the  Eastern 
markets  for  tiling,  decorative  work,  and  general  building  pur- 
poses. Its  chief  drawback,  as  may  readily  be  imagined,  is  its 
great  hardness,  which  is  fully  equal  to  that  of  pure  quartz,  or 
7  of  the  scale  as  given  on  page  20.  It  however  possesses  a 
remarkably  perfect  rift  and  grain,  and  by  especially  designed 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  283 

apparatus  the  company  expect  to  be  able  to  put  it  upon  the 
market  at  such  prices  as  shall  insure  its  adoption,  and  at  the 
same  time  return  a  fair  profit. 

The  stone  has  been  used  in  the  construction  of  the  Queen 
Bee  flouring  mill  at  Sioux  Falls,  a  structure  100  feet  long,  80 
feet  wide,  and  106  feet  high,  the  walls  being  5  feet  thick  at  the 
base  and  averaging  2  feet  9  inches  throughout.  It  has  also 
been  used  in  the  construction'of  several  private  residences,  and 
the  Dakota  penitentiary  in  this  same  city,  and  in  the  buildings 
of  the  deaf  mute  school  at  Keokuk;  and  those  of  the  Grinnell 
College  at  Grinnell,  Iowa.  It  has  also  been  used  in  polished 
columns  and  pilasters  in  the  German-American  Bank  and  Union 
Depot  Buildings  at  Saint  Paul,  Minnesota. 

Tennessee. — Fine  grained  light  pink  and  coarse  buff  sand- 
stones occur  at  Sewanee,  in  this  State,  and  coarse  gray  at  Parks- 
ville.  The  writer  is  in  possession  of  no  information  regarding 
the  extent  to  which  these  are  used  or  their  weathering  pro- 
perties. 

Texas. — So  far  as  is  yet  known  this  State  produces  but 
little  of  value  in  the  way  of  sandstones.  In  Burnet  County 
there  are  coarse  dark-brown  and  red  Lower  Silurian  (?)  sand- 
stones that  may  do  for  purposes  of  rough  construction  in  the 
near  vicinity.  A  fine,  light  buff  Carboniferous  stone,  closely 
resembling  the  light-colored  Ohio  sandstone,  occurs  also  at 
Mormon  Mills,  on  Hamilton  Creek,  in  this  same  county.  A 
very  light  gray  distinctly  laminated  stone  occurs  at  Riverside, 
in  Walker  County,  but  to  judge  from  the  sample  in  the  Museum 
collection  it  is  of  very  poor  quality.  A  fine-grained  light  buff 
stone,  studded  with  fine  black  points,  is  found  at  Ranger,  in 
Eastland  County,  and  several  varieties  of  apparent  good  quality, 
ranging  in  color  from  light  buff  to  deep  ferruginous  red,  in 
Parker  County.  So  far  as  the  writer  can  learn  none  of  these 
a,re  quarried  to  any  great  extent. 


284  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

Carboniferous  sandstones  of  a  gray  color  and  good  quality 
are  represented  as  occurring  on  the  line  of  the  Texas  and  Pacific 
Railroad  near  the  Brazos  River.  Material  from  these  beds  has 
been  used  in  the  construction  of  the  United  States  court-house 
at  Dallas  and  in  several  private  buildings  both  in  Dallas  and 
Fort  Worth  * 

Utah. — No  sandstones  of  any  kind  are  now  regularly  quar- 
ried in  this  Territory,  though  there  is  no  lack  of  material.  At 
Red  Butte,  near  Salt  Lake  City,  there  occur  inexhaustible  sup- 
plies of  Triassic  sandstone  of  various  shades  of  red  or  pink 
color.  These  have  been  used  to  some  extent  in  Salt  Lake 
City. 

Virginia. — The  belt  of  Triassic  sandstone  upon  which  the 
quarries  of  Seneca  Creek,  in  Maryland,  are  situated  extends 
across  the  Potomac  River  in  a  southwesterly  direction  as  far  as 
the  Rapidan  River,  in  Virginia.  So  far  as  the  writer  is  aware, 
but  few  attempts  have  been  made  to  quarry  this  material. 
On  the  line  of  the  Manassas  and  Virginia  Midland  Rail- 
road, at  a  point  not  far  from  Manassas,  quarries  were  opened 
about  1868,  and  up  to  the  time  of  the  taking  of  the  tenth 
census  some  400,060  cubic  feet  of  material  had  been  moved. 
As  represented  in  the  National  collections  the  stone  is  fine- 
grained, light  reddish  brown  in  color,  closely  resembling  the 
lighter  varieties  from  Seneca  Creek,  from  which,  however, 
it  differs  in  being  softer  and  a  trifle  more  absorbent.  The 
quarries  are  represented  as  being  situated  near  the  top  of  a  low 
eminence,  the  strata  being  nearly  horizontal,  with  but  a  slight 
dip  toward  the  south.  The  surface  only  of  the  ledge  has  been 
quarried,  and  this  to  a  depth  of  about  20  feet.  The  beds  vary 
from  I  to  6  feet  in  thickness  and  are  separated  by  a  greenish 
shale. 

*  First  Report  Geological  and  Mineralogical  Survey  of  Texas,  1888,  p.  50. 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  28$ 

No  other  sandstones  of  any  importance  are  at  present 
quarried  within  the  State  limits,  although  formerly  the  beds 
of  light  gray  or  buff  Juro-Cretaceous  stone  in  the  vicinity  of 
Aquia  Creek  were  worked  to  a  considerable  extent  to  furnish 
material  for  the  public  buildings  in  Washington  City.  It 
required  but  a  few  years,  however,  to  demonstrate  the  entire 
unfitness  of  this  material  for  any  sort  of  exposed  work,  and 
the  quarrying  has  therefore  been  discontinued. 

Washington. — On  Chuckanut  Bay,  adjoining  Bellingham 
Bay,  in  this  State,  is  a  very  large  deposit  of  a  blue-gray  Car- 
boniferous sandstone  that  has  been  quarried  to  furnish  material 
for  the  United  States  custom-house  at  Portland,  Oregon,  and 
for  use  in  other  towns  on  Puget  Sound.  The  quarry  is  situated 
on  a  bluff  which  is  represented  as  from  50  to  150  feet  in  height 
and  about  a  mile  in  length.  The  supply  of  workable  material 
is  inexhaustible  and  it  is  said  blocks  30  feet  in  length  can  be 
obtained  without  a  flaw.  The  quarries  are  so  situated  that 
vessels  of  large  size  can  be  brought  directly  to  the  pier  for 
loading. 

West  Virginia. — According  to  Professor  Orton  this  State 
abounds  in  building  stone,  of  which,  however,  but  a  small  per- 
centage is  strictly  first-class  material.  With  the  exception  of 
one  or  two  points  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  none 
is  quarried  for  the  general  market.  Near  Rowlesburgh,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Cheat  River,  there  occurs  a  deposit  of  fine  deep 
blue-gray  Devonian  sandstone  that  has  been  quarried  to  the 
depth  of  40  feet,  over  an  area  of  perhaps  one-fourth  of  an  acre. 
The  quarry  lies  at  the  very  foot  of  the  mountains,  and  the 
amount  of  stripping  is  accordingly  very  great  and  continually 
increasing.  The  stone  resembles  very  closely  the  Devonian 
bluestone  of  New  York,  especially  that  quarried  in  Chenango 
County  and  the  lighter  varieties  of  Ulster  County.  It  is  said 
to  be  highly  esteemed  and  very  durable. 


286  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

According  to  the  same  authority  the  Kanawha  River  and 
its  tributaries  throughout  the  whole  region  about  Charleston 
are  walled  with  rock,  and  quarries  are  possible  everywhere, 
but  not  all  of  the  stone  is  equally  good.  The  engineers  em- 
ployed in  the  erection  of  the  Government  building  at  Charles- 
ton, after  thoroughly  testing  all  the  prevailing  varieties,  finally 
decided  upon  that  from  a  comparatively  thin  bed,  6  to  10  feet 
in  thickness,  that  forms  the  cap  to  the  Mahoning  sandstone 
formation  near  Charleston.  This  rock  is  light  gray,  siliceous, 
somewhat  conglomeritic,  but  strong  and  eminently  durable. 
Frost  seemed  to  have  no  effect  upon  it,  and  no  efflorescence  is 
perceptible  upon  exposed  blocks.  Continual  vigilance  must, 
however,  be  exercised  in  selecting  stone,  as  much  of  it  contains 
shaly  pockets  and  pyritiferous  seams.  The  bluestone  from  this 
same  region,  which  has  been  largely  used  in  the  Government 
works  of  improving  the  Kanawha  River,  is  a  strong  stone, 
experiments  having  shown  it  to  have  a  crushing  strength  of 
about  14,000  pounds  per  square  inch  of  surface,  but  much  of  it 
is  pyritiferous,  and  great  care  must  be  used  in  selection.  This 
stone  has  been  used  in  one  or  two  important  buildings,  and 
with  very  bad  results,  it  beginning  to  discolor  and  exfoliate 
within  two  or  three  years. 

At  Grafton,  in  Taylor  County,  a  light  gray  sandstone  be- 
longing to  this  same  formation  (Carboniferous)  has  been  exten- 
sively quarried  for  railroad  work.  The  quality  of  the  stone  is 
said  to  be  good,  and  it  is  strong  enough  for  the  heaviest  work. 
The  thickness  of  the  stratum  here  is  from  150  to  200  feet,  and 
the  amount  of  stone  available  is  beyond  computation,  there 
being  literally  mountains  of  it.  There  are  several  other  local- 
ities in  this  region  where  sandstone  is  quarried  for  local  pur- 
poses, but  which  can  not  be  noticed  here. 

Wisconsin. — The  sandstones  of  this  State,  so  far  as  the 
writer  has  had  opportunity  of  observing,  are  mostly  of  a  very 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  287 


light  color  and  umnteresting  appearance,  such  as  are  not  likely 
to  ever  be  in  demand  for  other  than  local  uses.  Near  Darling- 
ton, La  Fayette  County,  there  is  stated  by  Professor  Conover 
to  occur  a  large  outcrop  of  Silurian  sandstone,  of  a  brown  and 
brick-red  color  passing  into  grayish-pink.  This  is  regarded  by 
the  above-named  authority  as  the  best-appearing  stone  in  that 
part  of  the  State,  though  little  quarried,  owing  to  the  large 
amount  of  worthless  stone  associated  with  it  and  the  cost  of 
transportation.  The  Potsdam  formations  in  the  region  of  Lake 
Superior  are  regarded  as  capable  of  furnishing  desirable  sand- 
stones, yellowish  to  deep  brown  in  color.  The  chief  defect  in 
these  is  the  presence  of  numerous  and  large  clay  holes,  neces- 
sitating great  care  in  selecting  the  material.  Many  exposures, 
as  at  Douglas  and  Bayfield  Counties  and  on  the  Apostle  Island, 
are  so  situated  that  the  quarried  material  could  be  shipped 
directly  upon  vessels,  with  but  little  carting. 

(d)  FOREIGN  SANDSTONES. 
(i)  British  Provinces  of  North  America. 

Ontario. — On  Vert  Island,  Nipigon  Bay,  in  the  northern 
part  of  Lake  Superior,  there  occurs  an  extensive  deposit  of 
sandstone  of  Potsdam  age,  in  which  quarries  have  been  opened 
within  a  few  years,  and  the  product  of  which  has  already  found 
its  way  into  the  principal  markets  of  Canada  and  the  Lake 
cities  of  the  United  States.  The  stone  is  of  fine  and  even 
grain,  not  distinctly  laminated,  hard,  and  of  a  bright  reddish- 
brown  color.  It  is  said  to  occur  in  inexhaustible  quantities, 
and  that  blocks  as  large  as  can  be  handled  can  be  readily 
obtained. 

An  1 8-inch  cube  from  this  locality  in  the  collections  of  the 
National  Museum  shows  it  to  be  one  of  the  most  attractive 
appearing  of  our  red  sandstones.  It  cuts  to  a  sharp  and  firm 


288  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

edge,  and  every  appearance  would  indicate  it  to  be  very  dur- 
able, though  possibly  liable  to  fade  slightly  on  exposure.  I  am 
informed  that  its  hardness  is  such  that  it  can  not  be  sawn  with 
sand  in  the  usual  manner,  but  must  be  cut  either  with  diamond- 
toothed  circular  saws  or  by  means  of  chilled  iron  globules. 

A  thin  section  of  the  stone  submitted  to  microscopic  exam- 
ination shows  it  to  consist  of  closely  compacted  grains  of  quartz 
and  feldspar,  and  an  occasional  shred  of  mica  interspersed  with 
iron  oxides,  which  serve  as  a  cement  and  give  color  to  the 
stone.  The  feldspars  are  often  kaolinized,  and  there  is  an 
occasional  grain  of  calcite. 

Quebec. — The  greenish-gray  sandstones  of  the  Sillery  (Lower 
Silurian)  formation,  both  above  Quebec  and  at  Point  Levis, 
produce  a  very  durable  stone  which  has  been  used  at  the 
points  mentioned.* 

New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia. — Sandstones,  varying  in 
color  from  red  to  yellow  and  light  gray  with  an  olive-green 
tint,  are  very  abundant  among  the  Lower  Carboniferous  rocks 
of  Albert  and  Westmoreland  Counties  in  the  province  of  New 
Brunswick.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  soft  enough  to  be  readily  cut 
when  first  quarried,  but  harden  on  exposure. f  So  far  as  the 
author  is  aware  the  only  one  of  these  varieties  extensively  used 
in  the  United  States  is  the  olive-green  from  Dorchester,  Hope- 
well,  and  neighboring  localities  near  Shepody  Bay,  at  the  head 
of  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  The  stone  is  of  fine  and  even  grain, 
works  readily,  and  has  been  used  both  in  carved  and  plain 
work  with  excellent  effect  in  New  York  and  neighboring  cities. 
The  author  has  had  no  opportunity  of  investigating  personally 
the  weathering  properties  of  the  stone.  By  some  it  is  claimed 
as  very  durable,  while  by  others  it  is  regarded  as  unfit  for 

*  Annual  Report  Geological  Survey  of   Canada,  1887-88,   vol.  ill.  part  n. 
p.  114  k. 

f  Dawson,  Acadian  Geology,  p.  248. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  289 

finely-carved  work  exposed  to  the  atmosphere.  It  is  probable 
that  sufficient  time  has  not  elapsed  since  its  introduction  to 
fully  show  its  qualities,  either  good  or  bad.  Sandstones  of 
quite  similar  appearance  and  of  the  same  geological  age  are 
quarried  in  various  parts  of  Nova  Scotia,  particularly  at  Saw 
Mill  Brook,  near  the  head  of  Pictou  Harbor.  These  are  ex- 
ported to  some  extent  to  this  country. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Nova  Scotia  stone  was  the  earli- 
est introduced  into  our  market,  it  has  become  confounded 
with  that  of  New  Brunswick,  which  it  closely  resembles,  and  it 
is  customary  to  speak  of  all  stone  from  this  regionas  Nova 
Scotia  stone.  It  is  stated,  however,  that  fully  95  per  cent  of 
the  imported  material  is,  in  reality,  from  Westmoreland  and 
Albert  Counties,  New  Brunswick. 

British  Columbia. — Cretaceous  sandstones  from  Nanaimo 
and  vicinity  have  been  used  in  Victoria.  Brownish-gray  stone 
from  Newcastle  Island  was  used  in  the  construction  of  the 
Mint  in  San  Francisco.* 

(2)  Scotland. 

So  far  as  I  am  aware,  the  only  Scotch  sandstones  regularly 
brought  to  the  United  States  are  those  of  Corsehill,  near 
Annan,  in  Dumfriesshire  ;  those  of  Ballochmile  Forfarshire, 
and  a  third  variety  from  Gatelaw  Bridge,  about  30  miles  from 
Ballochmile,  in  Dumfriesshire. 

Of  these  the  Corsehill  stone  is  of  greatest  importance.  Sam- 
ples in  the  National  collections  are  of  a  fine  and  even  grain, 
distinctly  laminated,  and  of  a  bright  red  color.  The  stone  is 
stated  by  the  agents  to  have  been  first  introduced  into  this 
country  about  1879,  smce  which  it  has  been  quite  extensively 


*  Annual  Report  of  Geological  Survey  of  Canada,  1887-88. 


2QO  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

used  for  trimmings  and  general  building.  It  is  regarded  as  a 
durable  stone  and  well  adapted  for  ashlar  work,  for  carving, 
and  for  columns.  The  strength  and  chemical  composition  of 
this  stone  are  given  in  the  tables. 

The  other  varieties  mentioned  are  of  the  same  general  ap- 
pearance as  the  Corsehill  stone,  and  are  used  for  the  same 
purposes. 

As  these  stones  are  brought  chiefly  as  ballast  by  vessels  sail- 
ing from  Carlisle,  England,  they  are  known  commercially  as 
Carlisle  stone,  regardless  of  their  true  source. 

There  are  in  the  National  collections  samples  of  other  Scotch 
sandstones  from  quarries  in  Morayshire,  Nairn,  Caithness,  Suth- 
erland, and  Ross.  These  are  all  of  a  light  color  and  seemingly 
possess  no  qualities  to  warrant  their  use  in  preference  to  mater- 
ials obtainable  nearer  home. 


(2)  VOLCANIC  FRAGMENTAL  ROCKS.   TUFFS 

(a)  DEFINITION,  ORIGIN,  AND  COMPOSITION. 

Under  the  general  name  of  tuff  it  is  customary  to  include 
those  fine-grained  fragmental  rocks  formed  by  the  consolidation 
of  volcanic  detritus,  such  as  ashes,  sand,  and  lapilli,  or  by  the 
breaking  down  and  reconsolidation  of  volcanic  rocks  of  various 
kinds.  This  consolidation,  may  have  taken  place  either  under 
water  or  on  dry  land  ;  in  either  case  they  are  as  a  rule  distinctly 
stratified.  Those  of  the  tuffs  which  are  formed  from  Tertiary 
or  post-Tertiary  erupted  materials  are  naturally  but  slightly 
consolidated,  soft  and  easy  to  work.  It  follows,  almost  as  a 
matter  of  course,  that  they  will  absorb  a  proportionally  large 
amount  of  water,  and  hence  be  less  durable  in  the  exceeding 
trying  climate  of  the  Eastern  and  Northern  States. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


The  older  tuffs  are  often  so  firmly  compacted  that  recourse 
to  the  microscope  must  be  had  to  determine  their  fragmental 
nature. 

(ft)  VARIETIES  OF  TUFFS. 

According  to  the  nature  of  the  lava,  from  the  disintegration 
of  which  the  tuffs  are  formed,  they  are  designated  by  special 
names.  Rhyolite  tuff  is  composed  of  disintegrated  rhyolite  ; 
trachyte  tuff  of  disintegrated  trachyte,  etc. 

(c]  LOCALITIES  AND  USES. 

These  rocks  are  very  abundant  throughout  our  Western 
States  and  Territories,  but  are  scarcely  at  all  used  for  building 
.purposes,  owing  in  part  to  the  newly  settled  condition  of  the 
country  in  which  they  occur  and  in  part  to  their  state  of  in- 
complete consolidation.  They  are,  however,  soft,  and  easy 
though  rather  unsafe  working  stones,  owing  to  lack  of  definite 
rift  and  grain,  often  plucky  fracture,  and  the  presence  of  num- 
erous dry  seams  and  clay  holes.  They  are,  moreover,  light, 
frequently  weighing  only  from  75  to  100  pounds  per  cubic 
foot,  though  moderately  strong.  When  not  exposed  to  too 
wide  variations  of  climate  they  must  prove  very  durable.  Al- 
though no  systematic  experiments  have  as  yet  been  made,  ap- 
pearances indicate  that  they  would  prove  extremely  refractory  in 
case  of  fire.*  They  present  a  great  variety  of  colors  ;  white, 
gray,  pink,  red,  lavender,  salmon,  green,  and  even  black,  are 
common. 

With  these  qualities  there  seems  no  reason  for  their  not 
proving  a  valuable  material  in  dry  climates  for  all  kinds  of 


*  Newberry  states  that  the  tuffs  found  near  Challis,  Idaho,  are  of  "consider- 
able importance  as  they  are  extensively  used  in  place  of  fire-brick  for  lining 
lead-smelting  furnaces,"  being  very  refractory  and  easily  dressed  into  shape 
with  an  old  ax — Transcript  from  the  New  York  Academy  of  Science,  Dec.  1881. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION'. 

structural  purposes  where  only  the  rougher  kinds  of  finish  are 
employed,  their  textures  being  almost  invariably  such  that  they 
will  not  polish. 

The  light  gray  and  pink  rhyolite  tuff  occuring  in  Douglass 
County,  Colorado,  has  been  used  in  the  construction  of  the 
Union  Depot,  Windsor  Hotel,  and  other  buildings  in  Denver. 

This  may  rank  as  a  fairly  durable  material,  but  it  contains 
clay  holes  and  other  imperfections  that  unfit  it  for  fine  work  of 
any  kind.  The  National  collections  contain  other  samples  of 
tuffs  of  various  kinds  from  California,  New  Mexico,  Idaho,  and 
Utah,  but  they  are  not  at  all  used  at  present,  and  their  fitness 
or  unfitness  for  any  sort  of  building  purposes  is  a  problem  for 
the  future  to  decide.  Near  Phoenix,  Arizona,  occurs  a  tuff  con- 
sisting only  of  the  firmly  compacted  shreds  of  volcanic  glass  or 
pumice,  and  which  is  stated  to  have  been  used  locally  to  some 
extent. 

Although  so  little  used  in  this  country,  tuffs  are  very  gen- 
erally employed  for  building  purposes  in  many  foreign  locali- 
ties. They  are  found  abundantly  in  the  volcanic  districts  of 
central  France,  and  in  the  Haute-Loire,  where  they  have  been 
used  in  the  construction  of  churches  and  dwelling-houses.  The 
so-called  "  peperino  "  of  the  campagna  of  Rome  and  Naples,  is 
a  tuff  formed  by  the  consolidation  of  volcanic  ashes,  and  has 
been  used  in  some  of  the  buildings  of  these  cities.  It  was  also 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  houses  of  Herculaneum  and 
Pompeii.  * 

Rhyolite  tuffs  are,  as  I  am  informed  by  Signer  Aguileria, 
very  largely  used  for  general  building  in  certain  parts  of  Mexico, 
the  climate  being  such  as  to  render  almost  any  material  very 
durable.  There  is  now  a  large  collection  of  these  stones  in  the 
National  Museum  at  Washington. 


*  Hull,  Building  and  Ornamental  Stones,  p.  283. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  293 


3.   ARGILLACEOUS    FRAGMENT AL   ROCKS.      THE   SLATES. 
(a)  COMPOSITION  AND  ORIGIN. 

Ordinary  clay  or  roofing  slate  is  but  an  indurated  and 
more  or  less  metamorphosed  siliceous  clay.  It  is  therefore 
classed  here  with  the  fragmental  rocks  although  microscopic 
examination  has  shown  that  it  frequently  contains  crystalline 
matter,  and  that  the  rocks  pass  by  insensible  gradations  into 
what  are  called  argillitic  mica  schists.  Microscopic  examina- 
tion of  slates  from  Littleton,  New  Hampshire  by  Hawes* 
showed  them  to  consist  of  a  mixture  of  quartz  and  feldspar  in 
fragments  as  fine  as  dust.  There  was  also  noted  a  considerable 
quantity  of  some  amorphous  coaly  matters ;  and  many  little 
needles  of  a  brightly  polarizing  substance  assumed  to  be  mica. 
The  clay  slate  of  Hanover  in  the  same  State  was  found  by  this 
same  authority  to  contain  many  minute  crystals  of  garnet  and 
staurolite.  An  examination  of  some  clay  slates  from  the  Hur- 
onian  region  of  Lake  Superior,  by  Wichmanf  showed  them  to 
consist  of  a  "  colorless  isotropic  groundmass  in  which  the  other 
constituents  are  apparently  imbedded,  whilst  throughout  are 
found  dust-like  particles  of  a  deep  gray  color,  which  represent 
the  chief  constituent,  and  consist  probably  of  clay  substances, 
the  greater  part  of  them  probably  kaolin."  Besides  these  con- 
stitutents  there  were  also  noticed  a  few  quartz  and  feldspar 
particles,  scales  of  hydrated  oxide  of  iron,  flakes  of  coaly  mat- 
ter, minute  tourmaline  and  mica  fragments.  The  Maine  slates 
as  observed  by  the  author  contain  quite  large  flakes  of  green- 
ish mica,  and  many  quartz  and  carbonaceous  particles.  As  a 
rule  the  dark  color  of  slate  seems  to  be  due  to  these  carbona- 
ceous particles,  they  occurring  abundantly  in  the  black  and 
blue-black  slates  of  Maine  and  Pennsylvania,  and  being  almost 

*  Geology  of  New  Hampshire,  vol.  in.  p.  237. 

f  Quarterly  Journal  Geological  Society  of  London,  vol.  xxxv.  1879,  P«  *58. 


2Q4  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

entirely  lacking  in  the  green  and  red  varieties  from  Vermont 
and  northeastern  New  York.  The  red  slates  of  the  last-named 
State  are  made  up  of  a  groundmass  of  impalpable  red  dust  in 
which  are  imbedded  innumerable  quartz  and  feldspar  particles, 
all  arranged  with  their  longer  axes  parallel  with  the  cleavage 
direction  of  the  slate.  Below  is  given  an  analysis  of  (i)  a  clay 
slate  from  Llangynog,  North  Wales,  and  (II)  for  comparison 
that  of  a  fire  clay  from  Illinois. 

I.          II. 

Silica 60.15  60.97 

Alumina 24.20  26.38 

Iron  Oxide 7.75  1.46 

Lime,  Magnesia  and  Alkalies 4.29  I.QO 

Water 3.72  8.93 

The  above,  taken  in  connection  with  Fig.  3,  drawn  from  a 
thin  slice  of  slate  cut  across  the  direction  of  cleavage,  will  suffice 
to  convey  some  idea  of  the  composition  and  structure  of  this 
class  of  rocks.  There  remains,  however,  for  our  consideration, 
a  very  important  matter,  that  relating  to  the  origin  of  the 
slates  and  the  cause  of  their  eminent  cleavage,  or  fissility. 

As  above  noted  the  slates  are  essentially  indurated  clays. 

They  originated  as  deposits  of 
fine  silt  on  ancient  sea-bottoms. 
Such  deposits,  gradually  accumu- 
lating through  long  periods  of 
time,  would  be  thrown  down  in 
parallel  and  approximately  hori- 
zontal layers,  but  individual  lay- 
ers would  naturally  vary  some- 
what in  texture  and  perhaps  color 
according  as  the  tributaries  by 

which  the  silt  was  brought  from 
FIG.  3. 

the  land  down  to  the  sea  periodi- 
cally varied  in  the  rapidity  of  their  currents,  a  swift  turbulent 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  2$$ 

stream  carrying  down  more  and  less  finely  assorted  material 
than  one  flowing  more  gently  and  with  lesser  volume.  In  the 
course  of  the  ages  following  the  beds  thus  laid  down  and 
subsequently  covered  by  thousands  of  feet  of  other  materials, 
became  converted  into  stone.  They  owe  their  present  ac- 
cessibility to  their  having  been  raised  above  the  ocean  level 
and  carried  even  to  mountainous  altitudes  through  the  in- 
calculably slow  and  yet  almost  never  ceasing  folding  and  fault- 
ing of  the  earth's  crust.  Formed  in  this  way  it  would  be  but 
natural  to  suppose  that  the  very  decided  tendency  to  cleave 
into  thin  smooth  sheets  would  be  developed  always  parallel  to 
the  ancient  bedding,  i.e.,  parallel  to  the  plane  in  which  they 
were  first  laid  down.  Such,  however,  is  far  from  being  the  case. 
Indeed,  as  a  rule,  the  fissile  structure  is  developed  at  very  con- 
siderable, though  ever  varying  angles  with  the  bedding,  and  is 
in  no  way  connected  with  it  genetically. 

To  what  then  is  this  fissility  due,  and  how  is  it  to  be  ac- 
counted for  ?  The  fact  that  a  mass  of  stone  will  split  up  indef- 
initely into  sheets  of  sometimes  less  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
in  thickness,  and  into  plates  of  large  size,  with  smooth  parallel 
surfaces,  and  this  too  directly  across  or  at  a  sharp  angle  with 
the  bedding  or  grain,  is  indeed  a  remarkable  feature  and  one 
worthy  of  careful  study. 

A  common  feature  of  many  slates,  particularly  those  of 
Pennsylvania,  is  the  presence  of  bands  of  varying  width  and 
darker  color  running  across  the  cleaved  surface.  These,  which 
occur  at  varying  intervals,  from  less  than  an  inch  to  a  few  feet 
(see  Fig.  4)  are  technically  called  ribbons  and  represent  the 
original  lines  of  bedding,  are  due  in  fact  to  the  dissimilarity  of 
the  materials  brought  down  and  deposited  during  the  various 
stages  of  the  slate-making  process.  But  alS  above  noted  and  as 
shown  in  the  figure,  the  slate  cleaves  with  great  readiness  at 
varying  angles  with  the  ribbons,  while  it  breaks  only  with  the 
greatest  difficulty  and  with  ragged  and  wavy  lines  in  a  direc 


296  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


tion  parallel  to  them  or  to  the  original  bedding,  which  is  the 
same  thing.  This  is  explained  as  follows :  In  Fig.  4  we  will 
suppose  the  horizontal  lines  to  represent  the  fine  clay  sediment 
as  it  was  first  laid  down  on  the  bottom,  the  broken  and  discon- 
nected lines  illustrating  the  trifling  difference  in  consistency  of 
the  various  layers.  Now  as  has  been  shown  by  the  experi- 


FIG.  4.  FIG.  5. 

ments  of  Sorby,  *  Daubree  f  and  others,  if  while  the  clay  was 
still  more  or  less  plastic,  a  gradual  but  very  powerful  pressure 
was  brought  to  bear  from  the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrows, 
there  would  be  produced  (ist)  a  very  considerable  shortening 
in  this  direction,  and  (2nd)  a  decided  fissile  structure  in  a 
direction  at  right  angles  with  the  direction  of  pressure  or  in  a 
vertical  direction  in  this  case  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  A  fold  might 
or  might  not  be  produced  at  the  same  time. 

This  last  condition  of  affairs  actually  exists  in  many  of  the 
Pennsylvania  slate  quarries  as  will  be  noted  later  (see  PI.  VIII). 

This  property  of  assuming  a  platy  structure  when  pressed, 
rolled  or  pounded,  is  by  no  means  confined  to  clays,  but  is 
manifested  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  almost  all  substances, 
as  is  illustrated  by  the  flaking  of  pastry  when  rolled,  or  the  ex- 
foliation of  rails  subjected  to  the  continuous  hammering  of  car 
and  engine  wheels.  The  effect  of  the  lateral  pressure  upon  the 
internal  structure  of  the  stone  is  beautifully  shown  by  cutting 
a  thin  section  from  the  slate  parallel  to  the  frontjace  shown  in 
Fig.  5,  i.e.,  across  the  cleavage,  and  submitting  it  to  examin- 
ation under  a  microscope  of  high  power,  when  it  will  be  seen 
that  all  the  minute  quartz,  feldspar  and  other  mineral  particles, 

*  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal,  vol.  IV.  1853,  p.  137. 
f  Geologic  Experimentale,  p.  391. 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  2Q? 

originally  laid  with  their  longer  axes  horizontal,  have  been 
made  to  reverse  their  positions,  as  in  the  experiments  of  Sorby 
and  Daubree  already  alluded  to,  and  now  lie  with  their  shorter 
axes  in  the  direction  of  pressure  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  It  has 
not  infrequently  happened,  however,  as  is  beautifully  shown  in 
many  of  the  Pennsylvania  quarries,  that  certain  layers  of  the 
slaty  material  were  not  of  such  a  nature  as  to  readily  assume  a 
platy  or  fissile  structure,  but  bent  or  broke  under  the  pressure. 
Such  portions  gave  rise  to  the  peculiar  crimped  or  puckered 
forms  of  ribbons  which  are  known  to  the  quarriers  as  "  curly 
slates."  Frequently  a  layer  of  material  of  considerable  thick- 
ness will  occur  of  such  a  nature  as  to  completely  resist  all  at- 
tempts  on  the  part  of  Dame  Nature  to  produce  the  desired  fis- 
sility,  but  will  bend  or  break  repeatedly  or  sometimes  remains 
a  hard  dense  homogeneous  mass,  in  the  midst  of  a  quarry,  the 
slates  on  both  sides  assuming  their  ordinary  character.  Since 
in  preparing  the  quarried  material  for  the  market  for  roofing 
and  other  purposes,  all  such  non-fissile,  crimped  and  curly  por- 
tions must  be  rejected,  the  processes  of  slate  manufacture  are 
enormously  wasteful,  and  the  entire  country  in  the  older  quarry 
regions  is  often  covered  by  huge  piles  of  debris  on  the  extreme 
outer  edges  of  which  are  precariously  pitched  at  every  con- 
ceivable angle,  the  long  lines  of  splitters'  shanties.* 


*  The  proportion  of  slate  waste  is  sometimes  enormous.  Davies  (Slates 
and  Slate  Quarrying)  states  that  in  the  Welsh  quarries  16  or  20  tons  of 
waste  to  one  of  merchantable  material  is  a  frequent  occurrence,  and  good  pay- 
ing quarries  have  been  worked  where  100  tons  of  rock  must  be  removed  to 
obtain  3!  tons  of  good  slate. 

Within  a  few  years  there  has  been  made  in  Pennsylvania  an  attempt  to  util- 
ize this  slate  waste  for  brick  making,  but  as  yet  the  demand  for  the  material  for 
this  purpose  has  not  been  sufficient  to  make  appreciable  inroads  on  the  supply. 
The  slate  is  finely  pulverized,  mixed  into  clay,  moulded  and  baked  like  an  ordi- 
nary brick.  The  result  is  a  trifle  more  porous  in  texture  and  of  a  duller  color 
than  a  clay  brick,  but  is  stated  to  be  good  and  durable. 


298 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


(b)  USES  OF  SLATE. 

Besides  for  roofing  purposes,  slates  are  used  for  billiard- 
tables,  mantels,  floor-tiles,  steps,  flagging,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  school-slates.  For  the  last-named  purpose  a  soft, 
even-grained  stone  is  required,  and  almost  the  entire  supply  is 
at  present  brought  from  Pennsylvania  and  Vermont. 

Of  late  years  the  business  of  marbleizing  slates  for  mantels 
and  fire-places  has  become  an  important  industry.  All  kinds 
of  stones  can  be  imitated  by  this  process,  but  that  most  com- 
monly seen  is  the  green  verd-antique  marble  and  the  variegated 
marbles  of  Tennessee.  Like  many  counterfeits,  however,  the 
work  is  too  perfect  in  execution,  and  need  deceive  none  but 
the  most  inexperienced. 

The  following  table  gives  the  various  sizes  of  slate  made  for 
roofing,  and  the  number  that  are  necessary  for  a  "  square," 
i.e.,  a  space  10  feet  square,  or  containing  an  area  of  100  square 
feet.* 


SIZE.  —  INCHES. 

No.  of 
slates 
to  a 
square. 

SIZE.  —  INCHES. 

No.  of 
slates 
to  a 
square. 

SIZE.—  INCHES. 

No.  of 
slates 
to  a 
square. 

24  by  14 

98 

18  by     9 

213 

IO  by  7 

588 

24         13 

105 

18           8 

230 

10          6 

686 

24            12 

114 

16         10 

222 

10         5 

623 

24            II 

124 

16           9 

246 

10        4 

1,039 

24        10 

138 

16           8 

247 

9         8 

600 

22            13 

116 

16           7 

316 

9         7 

686 

22            12 

126 

14           9 

300 

9         6 

800 

22            II 

133 

14           8 

327 

9         5 

960 

22            10 

151 

14           7 

374 

9        4 

1,200 

20            12 

141 

14           6 

436 

8         6 

960 

20            II 

154 

12              8 

400 

8         5 

1,152 

2O            IO 

169 

12              7 

457 

8         4 

1,440 

20           9 

188 

12              6 

570 

7         5 

1,440 

18         ii 

174 

12           5 

640 

7         4 

i,  800 

18         10 

192 

10           8 

5M 

7         3 

2,400 

*  From  Report  D  3,  vol.  T»  p.  142,  Second  Geological  Survey  Pennsylvania. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  299 


(c)  SLATES  OF  THE  VARIOUS  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 

Arkansas. — A  bed  of  purple  slate  suitable  for  mantel  and 
slab  work  is  stated*  to  occur  near  Little  Rock  in  this  State, 
and  also  another  some  nine  miles  west  of  Hot  Springs. 

California. — Slate  of  excellent  quality  and  color  is  said  f  to 
occur  in  El  Dorado  County,  near  Placerville,  where  it  has  been 
quarried  to  some  extent ;  the  color  is  blue-black. 

Colorado. — A  slate  of  good  quality  is  stated  to  occur  on  the 
road  between  Colorado  Springs  and  Canon  City. 

Dakota. — Good  roofing  slate  is  said  to  occur  on  Penning- 
ton  and  Slate  Creeks,  in  South  Dakota. 

Georgia. — Slates  sufficiently  cleavable  to  be  applicable  for 
roofing  purposes  are  stated  \  to  exist  in  great  quantities  along 
or  near  the  line  of  contact  between  the  Silurian  and  Meta- 
morphic  Groups,  near  the  Cohutta,  Silicoa,  Pine  Log,  and  Dug 
Down  Mountains  in  this  State.  The  most  noted  locality  for 
roofing  slates  is  on  the  eastern  side  of  Polk  County.  The  out- 
crops are  in  steep  hills  and  are  apparently  of  great  thickness. 
They  have  been  worked  quite  extensively  at  Rock  Mart, 
though  in  a  crude  and  itinerant  manner,  since  as  early  as  1859, 
the  material  being  shipped  chiefly  to  Atlanta  and  neighboring 
towns.  Other  dark-colored  slates  are  found  in  Bartow,  Gor- 
don, Murray,  and  Fannin  Counties,  while  buff  and  light  green 
varieties  are  found  in  large  quantities  in  the  northwestern  por- 
tion of  Bartow  County.  None  of  the  above  are  to  be  found  in 
the  general  market,  and  that  from  Rock  Mart  is  the  only  one 
samples  of  which  the  writer  has  had  opportunity  of  examining. 


*  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  1887,  p.  525. 

f  Eighth  Annual  Report  State  Mineralogist  of  California,  1888,  p.  199. 

\  Commonwealth  of  Georgia,  p.  137. 


3OO  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

This  is  of  deep  blue-black  color,  of  fine  and  even  texture,  and 
splits  readily  with  an  even  surface  into  slabs  of  moderate  thin- 
ness. It  is  apparently  less  fissile  than  the  slates  from  the 
Pennsylvania  regions,  but  is  more  like  those  of  Vermont.  The 
cleavage  is  apparently  parallel  with  the  original  bedding  of  the 
stone. 

Maine. — The  clay  slates  of  Maine  are  regarded  by  Prof. 
Hitchcock  as  of  Cambrian  and  Silurian  age.  According  to  this 
authority*  two  large  and  three  smaller  areas  of  the  stone  are  to 
be  found  within  the  State  limits.  The  first  and  more  northern 
of  these  in  the  form  of  an  irregular  band  from  10  to  25  miles  in 
width  extends  from  a  point  near  the  State  line  in  the  northern 
part  of  Franklin  County  northeastward  through  Somerset  and 
the  north-west  corner  of  Piscataquis  into  Aroostook  County, 
and  thence  northward  to  New  Brunswick,  occupying  the  whole 
width  of  the  St.  John  and  St.  Francis  boundary  line.  The 
second  large  belt  extends  from  near  the  western  boundary  of 
Somerset  County  (near  Lexington)  in  the  form  of  a  belt  of 
about  equal  width  in  a  more  nearly  easterly  direction  to  near 
Houlton  also  in  Aroostook  County,  crossing  thus  Somerset, 
Piscataquis,  and  Penobscot  Counties.  Of  the  three  smaller 
areas  one  is  on  the  Kennebec  River,  south  of  Skowhegan,  and 
the  two  others  in  Washington  County,  about  Baskahegan  Lake 
and  near  Princeton.  So  far  as  the  author  is  aware  portions  of 
the  two  large  areas  only  furnish  material  sufficiently  fissile  for 
roofing  purposes.  At  various  times  quarries  have  been  opened 
at  different  points  in  these  localities,  but  the  principal  ones  at 
this  time  worked  are  in  the  towns  of  Monson,  Blanchard,  and 
Brownville,  Piscataquis  County.  The  slates  here  produced  are 
all  of  a  blue-black  color,  and  are  reported  by  Mr.  J.  E.  Wolff 
as  of  most  excellent  quality,  being  hard,  yet  splitting  readily 


*  Geology  of  Northern  New  England,  p.  2. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  30 1 

into  thin  sheets  with  a  fine  cleavage  surface,  not  subject  to  dis- 
coloration and  giving  forth  a  clear  ringing  sound  when  struck. 
Although  seemingly  susceptible  of  being  used  for  all  purposes 
to  which  slates  are  usually  applied,  they  are  at  present  utilized 
mainly  for  roofing. 

Maryland. — The  principal  quarries  of  slate  in  this  State  are 
in  Harford  County,  adjoining  Pennsylvania.  The  ridge  upon 
which  the  quarries  are  situated  extends  across  the  State  line 
into  York  County,  where  several  other  quarries  are  worked 
within  a  radius  of  about  I  mile.  As  the  Harford  and  York 
County  stones  are  practically  identical  we  will  reserve  a  com- 
plete description  of  their  qualities  until  we  come  to  speak  of 
the  latter.  Other  quarries  were  formerly  worked  in  the  town 
of  Ijamsville,  in  Frederick  County.  The  stone  here  is  of  a 
blue-black  color  and  is  represented  to  be  of  good  quality,  but 
for  some  reason  unknown  to  the  writer  the  quarries  are  no 
longer  worked. 

Massachusetts. — Although,  as  already  noted,  slate  was  one 
of  the  stones  to  be  earliest  quarried  in  eastern  Massachusetts, 
the  material  was  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  of  little  value  except 
for  rough  construction,  and  hence  the  industry  has  always 
remained  of  slight  importance.  The  only  quarries  now  worked 
from  which  slate  suitable  for  roofing  or  other  fine  work  can  be 
obtained  are  at  Lancaster,  in  Worcester  County.  This  quarry 
is  stated  by  Marvin*  to  have  been  opened  by  a  Mr.  Flagg  ovef 
a  century  ago,  and  the  slates  were  in  use  as  early  as  1750  or 
1753  (ante,  p.  9).  Owing  to  lack  of  favorable  transportation 
facilities  the  work  was  discontinued  more  than  fifty  years  since, 
and  it  was  not  till  1877  that  it  was  recommenced.  The  slate 
though  porous  is  said  to  hold  its  color  well  and  to  be  durable. 
Another  outcrop  of  slate  of  good  quality  is  said  to  occur  about 

*  History  of  Lancaster. 


302  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


I  mile  north  of  Clinton,  in  this  same  county.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, as  yet  quarried. 

The  clay  slates  occurring  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston  and 
Cambridge  have  long  been  used  for  road  materials,  but  for 
purposes  of  construction  only  to  a  slight  extent.  They  are 
not  sufficiently  fissile  for  roofing  purposes.  The  stone  is 
regarded  by  Professor  Shaler  as  of  great  value  for  rough  build- 
ing, as  it  is  durable,  easily  quarried,  and  very  effective  when 
placed  in  a  wall.  The  Shepherd  Memorial  Church  in  Cam- 
bridge is  the  only  building  of  importance  yet  constructed  of 
this  material. 

Michigan. — An  extensive  deposit  of  Huronian  slates  occurs 
in  the  northwestern  portion  of  the  northern  peninsula  of  this 
State,  principally  in  the  towns  of  Houghton,  Marquette,  and 
Menominee.  But  a  small  portion  of  the  entire  formation  will 
furnish  material  sufficiently  fissile,  homogeneous,  and  durable 
for  roofing  purposes  ;  nevertheless  the  supply  of  good  material 
is  so  abundant  as  to  be  practically  inexhaustible.  At  L'Anse 
the  beds  extend  down  to  the  lake  shore,  but  are  badly  shattered, 
not  homogeneous,  nor  of  sufficient  durability  in  this  immediate 
vicinity  to  be  of  value.  Good  roofing  slate  is,  however,  found 
about  15  miles  from  L 'Arise,  on  the  northwestern  side  of  the 
Huron  mountain  range,  and  about  3  miles  from  Huron  Bay, 
where  extensive  quarries  have  been  opened.  The  stone  here 
is  susceptible  of  being  split  into  large,  even  slabs  of  any  desired 
thickness,  with  a  fine  silky,  homogeneous  grain,  and  combines 
durability  and  toughness  with  smoothness.  Its  color  is  an 
agreeable  black  and  very  uniform.  Several  companies  have 
located  their  quarries  along  the  creek  which  runs  parallel  with 
the  strike  of  the  slate,  and  a  tramway  about  3J-  miles  in  length 
has  been  built  down  to  the  bay,  where  a  dock  has  been  erected 
for  the  unloading  of  vessels  and  for  the  convenient  shipment 
of  the  material.* 

*  Geology  of  Michigan,  vol.  in.  part  I.  p.  161. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  303 

Minnesota. — At  Thompson,  Carlton  County,  where  the  Saint 
Paul  and  Duluth  Railroad  crosses  the  Saint  Louis  River,  there 
occurs,  according  to  Professor  N.  H.  Winchell*  an  inexhaust- 
ible supply  of  hard,  black,  and  apparently  eminently  durable 
slate  suitable  for  roofing,  school-slates,  tables,  mantels,  and  all 
other  purposes  to  which  slate  is  usually  applied.  Quarries 
were  opened  here  by  the  railroad  company  in  1880,  but  for 
some  unknown  reason  were  discontinued  before  any  of  the 
stone  had  been  put  upon  the  market. 

New  Hampshire. — Professor  Hitchcockf  states  that  the 
only  formation  in  this  State  likely  to  furnish  good  roofing  slates 
is  the  Cambrian  range  along  the  Connecticut  River.  There 
have  been  quarries  upon  this  belt  in  the  towns  of  Littleton, 
Hanover,  and  Lebanon,  but  they  have  not  now  been  worked 
for  several  years.  The  stone  is  stated  to  be  not  quite  equal  to 
that  of  Maine  and  Vermont,  but  certain  portions  of  it  might 
be  utilized  locally  to  good  advantage,  as  for  tables,  platforms, 
curbs,  and  flag-stones.  In  Littleton  the  band  of  rocks  suitable 
for  working  is  nearly  an  eighth  of  a  mile  wide,  and  has  been 
opened  at  two  localities.  The  strata  are  vertical  and  the  out- 
crops on  a  hill  where  good  drainage  can  be  had  to  a  depth  of  a 
hundred  feet.  The  stone  is  soft,  apparently  durable,  and  of  a 
dark  blue  color,  but  does  not  cleave  so  thin  as  the  slate  from 
Maine.  At  East  Lebanon  the  valuable  part  of  the  slate  bed  is 
30  feet  in  width.  The  stone  does  not  split  sufficiently  thin  for 
roofing,  but  can  be  utilized  to  good  advantage  for  chimney- 
pieces,  table-tops,  and  shelves  ;  also  for  sinks,  cisterns,  flooring- 
tiles,  etc.  The  waste  material  was  formerly  ground  and  bolted 
into  slate  flour. 

New  Jersey. — The  belt  of  Silurian  slates  and  shales  extend- 


*  Preliminary  Report  on  the  Building  Stones,  etc.,  of  Minnesota,  1880,  p.  17. 
f  Geology  of  New  Hampshire,  vol.  in.  p.  81. 


3O4  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

ing  in  a  northeasterly  and  southwesterly  direction  entirely 
across  the  northern  part  of  this  State  includes  several  quarri- 
able  areas,  but  which  have  up  to  the  present  time  been  utilized 
only  to  a  limited  extent.  Quarries  have  been  worked  at  La 
Fayette  and  Newton,  in  Sussex  County,  and  also  at  the  Dela- 
ware Water  Gap  in  Warren  County.  The  product  of  these  is 
represented  by  Professor  Cook*  as  of  good  quality  and  suitable 
not  only  for  roofing  material,  but  also  for  school  slates,  tiles, 
and  mantels. 

New  York. — The  roofing  slates  of  this  State  occur  in  two 
geologically  distinct  belts,  ranging  in  a  general  northeasterly 
and  southwesterly  direction  through  the  counties  of  Orange, 
Dutchess,  Columbia,  Rensselaer,  and  Washington,  and  thence 
onward  into  Vermont,  one  of  them  furnishing  by  its  continua- 
tion the  well-known  roofing  slates  of  the  last-named  State. 
The  irregular  outlines  and  intimate  associations  of  the  two 
beds  can  be  well  understood  only  by  reference  to  maps  such  as 
it  has  been  found  inexpedient  to  reproduce  here.f  Through- 
out both  areas  the  beds  dip  at  high  angles  to  the  south  and 
east,  the  cleavage  being  coincident,  or  varying  at  a  very  slight 
angle  with  the  bedding.  In  this  respect  these  stand  in  strong 
contrast  with  the  slates  of  eastern  Pennsylvania,  yet  to  be 
noted.  In  none  of  the  New  York  quarries,  so  far  as  observed, 
do  the  slates  possess  the  eminently  fissile  character  of  those 
of  the  above-named  State,  the  split  slates  being  thicker  and 
with  more  uneven  surfaces. 

Of  the  two  formations  mentioned,  the  lower,  or  Cambrian 
bed  extends  in  the  form  of  a  broad  though  interrupted  belt 
through  the  central  part  of  Rensselaer  County  and  the  western 

*  Annual  Report  State  Geologist  of  New  Jersey,  1881,  p.  66. 
f  See  Walcott's   "The  Taconic  System  of  Emmons,"  American  Journal  of 
Science,  May,  1888. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  305 


part  of  Washington,  crossing  the  State  line  into  Vermont 
some  five  miles  north-west  of  Bennington,  Vermont.  At  its 
greatest  development  it  is  not  above  ten  miles  wide  in  an 
east  and  west  direction,  and  it  thins  out  rapidly  north  of 
Fairhaven,  becoming  a  mere  wedge  and  ultimately  disappear- 
ing a  few  miles  north-west  of  Middlebury,  Vermont,  to  ap- 
pear once  more  in  the  northern  part  of  Chittenden  County  as 
a  narrow  belt  running  in  the  same  general  direction  across  the 
State  into  Canada.  The  rock  is  interstratified  with  shales  and 
limestones,  and  but  a  small  part  of  the  area  furnishes  quarriable 
material,  the  productive  quarries  in  both  belts  being,  according 
to  Professor  Smock,*  all  in  Washington  County,  and  limited  to 
a  narrow  belt  running  from  Salem  northeast  through  the  towns 
of  Hebron,  Granville,  Hampton,  and  Whitehall.  The  output 
from  this,  the  Cambrian  belt,  varies  from  purplish  to  green  in 
color,  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  is  used  for  all  purposes  to 
which  slates  are  usually  applied  ;  it  is  extensively  marbleized. 

The  upper,  or  Hudson  River  bed  of  slate,  occurs  in  the 
form  of  very  irregular  and  often  interrupted  areas  following 
the  same  general  trend  as  the  Cambrian  slates,  but  thinning 
out  rapidly  north  of  Granville,  though  continuing  in  the  form 
of  an  irregular  interrupted  belt  through  Vermont  into  Canada. 
It  appears  on  the  Vermont  side  of  the  line  west  of  the  Cam- 
brian slates,  only  in  detached  areas  in  Bennington  and  Rutland 
Counties ;  east  of  the  Cambrian  it  appears  as  a  long,  narrow, 
though  not  continuous  belt,  in  Addison,  Chittenden,  and 
Franklin  Counties. 

The  slates  of  this  formation  are  of  a  brick-red  and  green 
color,  both  varieties  occurring  often  in  the  same  quarry,  and 
indeed  the  split  slate  in  slabs  not  above  T3^  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness are  often  found  to  be  red  on  one  side  and  green  on  the 


*  Bulletin  No.  3,  New  York  State.  Museum. 


306  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

other.  The  red  variety  is  the  more  highly  valued,  bringing 
about  three  times  the  price  of  the  ordinary  varieties.  It  is 
used  mainly  for  roofing  and  tiling.  As  shown  at  Granville, 
this  red  slate  belt,  which  runs  nearly  parallel  with  the  Vermont 
line,  is  very  narrow,  in  places  not  over  30  rods  wide,  and  out- 
crops in  numerous  low,  glaciated  knobs  or  ledges.  The  quality 
of  the  red  slates  is  stated  by  Professor  Smock  to  improve  as 
the  quarries  are  worked  to  a  greater  depth. 

Although  the  beds  of  this  formation  pass  over  into  Ver- 
mont, the  brick-red  slates  are  confined  mainly  to  the  areas  on 
the  New  York  side  of  the  line,  and  the  quarries  of  the  town? 
above  noted  furnish  the  entire  supply  for  the  United  States. 

Pennsylvania. — The  narrow  slate-belt  already  noted  as  occur- 
ring in  Harford  County,  Maryland,  crosses  the  State  line  into  the 
extreme  eastern  portion  of  York  County,  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
thence  sweeps  around  .in  a  gradually  narrowing  curve  to  the 
Susquehanna  River,  appearing  again  on  its  eastern  bank,  in 
Fulton  Township,  Lancaster  County,  where  it  finally  disap- 
pears. It  is  from  this  narrow  belt,  at  its  greatest  dimensions 
less  than  a  mile  wide  and  scarcely  more  than  six  miles  long, 
that  has  been,  quarried  for  many  years  the  justly  celebrated 
blue-black  "  Peach  Bottom  Slate."  The  stone  is  stated  to  rank 
very  high  for  strength  and  durability.  It  is  tough,  fine,  and 
moderately  smooth  in  texture,  and  is  stated  not  to  fade  on  ex- 
posure, buildings  on  which  it  has  been  exposed  for  upwards 
of  seventy-five  years  still  showing  it  fresh  and  unchanged. 

The  stone  is  less  fissile  than  the  majority  of  those  from  Penn- 
sylvania, New  York,  Vermont,  or  Maine,  yielding  as  a  rule  but 
four  slabs  to  the  inch,  while  the  Monson  and  Slatington  slates 
readily  yield  twice  or  even  three  times  that  number.  A  micro- 
scopic examination  shows  the  stone  to  have  undergone  a  greater 
amount  of  metamorphism  than  have  those  from  the  other  re- 
gions described,  being  in  lact  no  longer  a  fragmental  rock,  but 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  307 

rather  a  highly  carbonaceous,  crystalline  schist.  This  fact, 
while  not  perhaps  accounting  for  its  lack  of  fissility,  does  in 
part  at  least  account  for  the  increased  strength  and  elasticity 
of  the  -stone  as  well  as  its  great  durability. 

An  analysis  of  this  slate  is  given  in  the  tables.  The  princi- 
pal quarries  now  worked  are  at  Bangor  and  West  Bangor,  York 
County,  in  Pennsylvania,  and  at  adjacent  points  just  across  the 
line  in  Maryland0 

Persifor  Frazer  *  regards  these  slates  as  of  Huronian  age, 
and  but  local  modifications  of  the  interbedded  chloritic  schists. 
According  to  this  authority  the  bands  of  merchantable  slate 
are  rarely  more  than  a  few  yards  in  width,  and  the  strata  so 
capricious  that  the  greatest  perseverance  and  ingenuity  on  the 
part  of  the  quarrymen  are  indispensable  to  avoid  sustaining 
loss,  and  even  the  spoiling  of  the  quarry  by  injudicious  mining. 

On  account  of  the  narrowness  of  the  belt  and  the  steepness 
of  the  dip,  which  is  sometimes  nearly  vertical,  the  quarries  are 
very  deep  in  proportion  to  their  surface  areas.  To  the  cost  of 
working  these  deep  quarries  is  added  that  of  the  enormous 
amount  of  waste  material — estimated  as  in  some  cases  equal  to 
88  per  cent — and  as  a  consequence  the  works  have  not  in  all 
cases  proven  very  profitable. 

The  Utica  and  Hudson  River  slate  formation,  in  which  lie 
the  largest  and  most  important  quarries  of  slate  at  present 
worked  in  the  State,  extends  in  a  belt  of  from  7  to  12 
miles  in  width  throughout  the  entire  northern  parts  of  North- 
hampton  and  Lehigh  Counties,  and  thence  in  a  gradually 
though  unevenly  narrowing  band  in  a  general  southwesterly 
direction  through  Berks,  Lebanon,  Dauphin,  Cumberland,  and 
Franklin  Counties,  whence  it  passes  into  Maryland. 

*  Theses  Presentees  a  la  Facult6  des  Sciences  de  Lille,  Universite  Qe  France, 
1883.     Also  Report  CCC.  Second  Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania,  1880. 


308  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

The  geological  character  of  the  beds  and  the  details  regard- 
ing the  quarries  have  been  described  with  considerable  detail 
by  Mr.  R.  H.  Sanders,  *  and  it  seems  unnecessary  to  repeat 
them  here  in  full. 

According  to  this  authority  the  structure  of  the  slate  belt 
throughout  the  region,  is  in  general  a  series  of  anticlines  and 
synclines,  which  are  closely  folded  and  mostly  overturned 
(Plate  VIII.)  So  abundant  indeed,  are  the  folds,  that  in  several 
of  the  quarries  of  Washington  township  the  opening  is  directly 
across  the  axis  of  the  fold.  In  this  respect,  the  slates  of  the 
Pennsylvania  regions  stand  in  marked  contrast  with  those  of 
New  York  and  Vermont  (yet  to  be  described).  The  cleavage 
property  is  due  wholly  to  pressure  which  acted  in  a  direction 
practically  at  right  angles  with  these  folds,  and  the  quarries 
therefore  not  infrequently  produce,  at  different  depths,  slates 
cleaving  parallel,  directly  across,  and  at  all  intermediate  angles 
with  the  bedding  of  the  stone.  This  feature  gives  rise  to  ''rib- 
bon "  and  "  curly"  slates  and  causes  large  amounts  of  waste  in 
the  preparation  of  material  for  roofing  purposes,  inasmuch  as 
the  ribbons,  which  represent  the  original  lines  of  bedding  as 
described  on  p.  295,  must  be  rejected.  Only  those  portions  of 
uniform  texture  and  composition  lying  between  the  ribbons 
are  suitable  for  roofing.  For  tiling,  mantels,  billiard  tables 
etc.,  the  ribbons  are  not  however  objectionable.  It  is  the 
presence  of  these  that  gives  rise  to  the  dark  bands,  an  inch 
more  in  width,  such  as  may  so  frequently  be  seen  running 
across  the  large  slabs. 

The  slates  throughout  the  entire  region  now  worked  are  or 
a  quite  uniform  dark  blue  or  blue-black  color  and  are  used  for 
roofing,  school  slates  and  all  purposes  to  which  the  material  is 
commonly  applied.  The  waste  slate  is  in  some  cases  utilized 
in  the  manufacture  of  brick. 

*  Second  Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania,  Report  D.  3,  vol.  I.  p.  83-148. 


a 

H 

I 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  309 

In  the  manufacture  of  school-slates  a  softer  and  finer  grade 
of  material  is  requisite  than  for  most  other  purposes.  These 
are  split  from  the  block  in  the  same  manner  as  roofing-slates, 
their  edges  trimmed  with  a  saw,  and  the  faces  smoothed  by  a 
drawing-knife,  after  which  they  are  rubbed  down  with  a  cloth 
and  fine  slate  dust  till  the  surface  is  smooth  and  even.  They 
are  then  mounted  in  wooden  frames  and  packed  for  shipment. 

But  a  very  small  part  of  the  above  roughly  outlined  area  is 
of  such  a  nature  as  to  furnish  stone  for  economic  purposes. 
The  quarries  at  present  worked,  beginning  with  the  eastern- 
most, are  situated  in  the  various  townships  in  the  northern 
part  of  Northampton  County,  and  in  Washington,  Heidelburgh 
and  Lynn  townships  in  Lehigh  County.  The  quarry  industry 
as  here  pursued  has  given  rise  to  a  number  of  small  villages 
bearing  such  suggestive  names  as  Slateford,  Slatedale,  and 
Slatington,  or  Bangor  and  Penargyl,  after  their  Welsh  proto- 
types. No  quarries  are  as  yet  worked  on  any  of  the  beds  east 
of  the  Schuylkill  river,  though  there  is  no  reason  for  supposing 
good  material  may  not  here  be  found.  The  red  slate  outcrops 
occurring  through  the  western  part  of  Berks  County,  and  which 
continue  on  toward  the  centre  of  Cumberland  County,  are 
thought  by  the  State  geologists  to  be  worthy  of  investigation, 
and  may  yet  furnish  valuable  material. 

South  Carolina. — Clay  slates  are  stated*  to  occur  in  this 
State  in  a  broad  band  extending  along  the  edge  of  the  Tertiary 
formations  from  Edgefield  County,  on  the  south-west,  to  Ches- 
terfield, on  the  north-east.  The  present  writer  has  seen  none 
of  this  material  nor  has  he  any  knowledge  regarding  its  adapt- 
ability for  any  form  of  architectural  work. 

Tennessee. — A  large  bed  of  slate  is  statedf  to  have  been  dis- 


*  South  Carolina,  Resources,  Population,  etc.,  1883,  p.  133.' 
f  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  1886,    p.  553. 


3IO  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

covered  on  Abrams  Creek,  some  one  and  a  half  miles  from  the 
Little  Tennessee  river  in  Blount  County. 

Texas. — Bluish-black  slates  of  a  jointed  and  thinly  stratified 
structure,  resembling  the  surface  slates  of  New  Hampshire  and 
Vermont,  and  promising  of  great  utility,  are  stated  to  occur  in 
yano  and  Presidio  Counties.*  The  writer  has  seen  none  of 
these. 

Vermont. — The  roofing  slates  of  Vermont  are  stated  by 
Professor  Hitchcock  f  to  exist  in  three  distinct  and  nearly  par- 
allel belts,  occupying  the  eastern,  middle,  and  western  portions 
of  the  State.  The  eastern  belt  extends  from  Guilford,  one  of 
the  most  southern  towns  in  the  State,  to  Waterford,  and  prob- 
ably as  far  north  as  Burke,  in  Caledonia  County,  where  it  is  cut 
off  by  an  immense  outcrop  of  granite.  The  slate  of  this  belt 
differs  from  that  of  the  other  divisions  in  presenting  a  more 
laminated  appearance,  resembling  closely  a  mica  schist,  the 
cleavage  corresponding  closely  with  the  lamination,  which 
vanes,  if  at  all,  but  a  trifle  from  the  planes  of  stratification. 
The  stone  is  represented  as  of  good  color,  tough,  and  durable. 
Besides  for  roofing  purposes  it  was  used  largely  for  tombstones 
prior  to  1830,  when  marble  began  to  be  used  in  its  place.  The 
first  quarry  opened  in  this  belt  is  stated  by  the  above  authority 
to  have  been  that  of  the  New  England  Slate  Company,  who 
commenced  operations  in  1812.  At  the  present  time,  so  far 
as  the  author  is  aware,  no  quarries  whatever  are  worked  in  this 
belt. 

The  middle  range  of  slate  extends  from  Lake  Memphrema- 
gog  in  a  southerly  course  as  far  as  Barnard.  The  slate  found 
in  this  differs  from  that  of  the  eastern  belt  in  that  it  splits 
more  readily  into  thin  sheets,  is  not  so  distinctly  laminated, 


*  Second  Annual  Report  Geology  of  Texas,  1876,  p.  26. 
f  Geology  of  Vermont,  vol.  IT,  1861,  p    791. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  31! 

and  is  more  uniform  in  color,  "  being  nearly  black  and  appar- 
ently free  from  the  traces  of  iron  oxides."  A  single  quarry  is 
now  in  operation  in  this  belt,  that  of  the  Adams  Slate  Com- 
pany, in  Northfield,  Washington  County. 

The  western  and  most  important  of  the  slate  belts  of  the 
State  extends  from  a  point  near  the  town  of  Cornwall,  on  the 
north,  southward  through  Castleton,  Fairhaven,  Poultney, 
Wells,  and  Pawlet,  and  passes  into  the  State  of  New  York  at 
Granville,  as  already  noted.  In  this  slate  it  is  stated  "  there  is 
a  marked  difference  between  the  stratification  and  cleavage 
planes,  the  dip  of  the  latter  being  greater  than  the  former." 
In  color  the  slates  of  this  region  are  said  to  closely  resemble 
those  of  Wales,  being  of  dark  purple,  with  blotches  of  green, 
while  some  of  the  strata  are  green  throughout.  In  some  por- 
tions of  the  formation  a  red  slate  occurs,  similar  to  that  found 
across  the  line  in  New  York  State.  This  variety  is  not,  how- 
ever, now  quarried.  Though  a  deep  reddish-brown  variety  is 
produced  at  Fairhaven,  and  some  of  those  from  Castleton  and 
Pawlet  are  of  a  more  reddish  than  purplish  tinge. 

This  western  area  furnishes. the  most  fissile  and  valuable 
slates  of  the  State,  and  is  very  extensively  worked.  The  slate 
is  soft  and  uniform  in  texture,  and  can  be  readily  planed  or 
sawn  with  a  steel  circular  saw,  such  as  is  used  in  sawing  lumber. 
It  is  well  adapted  and  extensively  used,  not  only  for  roofing 
purposes,  but  for  school  slates,  slate-pencils,  blackboards,  table- 
tops,  mantels,  etc.  It  is  very  extensively  marbleized.  It  is 
stated  by  Prof.  Hitchcock  that  the  first  quarry  opened  in  this 
region  was  that  of  Hon.  Alanson  Allan,  who  began  the  manu- 
facture of  school  slates  at  Fairhaven  in  1845.  The  beds  are  of 
Cambrian  age. 

Virginia. — On  Hunt  Creek,  a  tributary  of  Slate  River,  in 
Buckingham  County,  in  this  State,  there  occur  extensive  de- 
posits of  blue-black  slate  of  a  quality  suitable  for  a  variety  of 


312  STONES  FOR  BUILDING   AND   DECORATION. 


uses,  although  they  are  now  worked  mainly  for  roofing  mater- 
ial. The  principal  quarries  are  at  or  near  the  towns  of  Buck- 
ingham, New  Canton,  and  Ore  Banks.  The  beds  extend  up 
the  creek  for  several  miles,  the  trend  being  practically  paralled 
with  Slate  River. 

Another  belt  of  slate  of  the  same  geological  age  (Arch<-ean) 
as  that  just  mentioned  is  stated  to  occur  near  the  southeast 
base  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  in  Amherst  and  Bedford  Counties. 

(d)  FOREIGN  STATES. 

Canada. — Slates  of  excellent  quality,  smooth,  homogen- 
eous, and  strong,  and  of  green,  red,  purple,  and  blue-black 
colors,  occur  in  Richmond  County,  in  the  Province  of  Quebec. 
These  are  now  being  quarried  and  are  to  be  found  in  the  prin- 
cipal markets  of  the  United  States.  The  leading  quarries, 
as  given  by  Newberry,*  are  those  of  the  New  Rockland  Slate 
Company,  the  Melbou?ne  Slate  Company,  the  Rankin  Hill 
Slate  Company,  and  the  Danville  School  Slate  Company.f 

Slate  of  good  quality  is  stated  J  also  to  occur  in  New 
Canaan  and  on  the  Middle  River  of  Pictou,  in  Nova  Scotia. 

Great  Britian. — The  finest  roofing  slates  of  Great  Britain 
are  stated  by  Hull  §  to  be  derived  from  the  Cambrian  and 
Lower  Silurian  formations  of  North  Wales.  The  Cambrian 
slates  are  stated  to  be  generally  of  a  green  and  purple  color, 
while  those  of  the  Silurian  formations  vary  from  pale  gray  to 
nearly  black.  The  stone  splits  with  wonderful  facility  into 
very  thin  sheets,  and  the  quarries  are  especially  favorably 


*  Report  of  Judges,  p.  164. 

f  Further  details  regarding  the  slate  areas  of  Canada  are  given  in  Geology 
of  Canada,  1863,  pp.  830,  831. 

\  Dawson,  Acadian  Geology,  p.  593. 
§   Op.  cit.  p.  292. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  313 


situated  both  for  working  and  for  shipment.  Material  from 
these  sources  has  been  sent  to  every  quarter  of  the  globe, 
and  has  been  more  extensively  used  for  roofing  than  any 
other  slate  now  quarried.* 

*  For  a  detailed  account  of  the  Welsh  slates  and  the  methods  of  quarrying 
see  Davies  Slate  Quarrying,  Crosby,  Lockwood  &  Co. 


PART   III. 

METHODS  OF  QUARRYING  AND  DRESSING  STONE, 
(l)  GENERAL   CONSIDERATIONS. 

There  are  certain  structural  features  common  to  rocks, 
features  due  in  part  to  method  of  formation  and  in  part  to 
subsequent  events,  that  are  worthy  of  a  somewhat  extended 
notice  inasmuch  as  they  have  an  important  hearing  upon  quar- 
ry methods  and  quarry  resources. 

In  the  chapter  on  processes  of  rock  formation,  the  rocks  it 
will  be  remembered  were  divided  into  three  groups,  ist.  Sed- 
imentary, 2nd.  Eruptive  and  3rd.  Metamorphic,  the  last  com- 
prising members  of  the  first  two,  but  which  had  been  so 
changed  by  the  processes  of  metamorphism  that  their  original 
nature  was  not  in  all  cases  evident.  Certain  of  the  structural 
features  referred  to  are  common  to  all  classes,  others  are  con- 
fined to  a  single  one. 

In  all  sedimentary  rocks  there  is  a  more  or  less  evident 
bedding,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  sediments  were  laid  down  in 
approximately  parallel  layers.  The  different  layers  or  beds 
in  such  cases  often  vary  greatly  in  texture  and  color,  and  it 
may  be  are  separated  from  one  another  by  thin  beds  of  fine 
shaly  material  as  shown  in  plates  VII  and  IX. 

This  bedded  structure  is  of  the  greatest  importance  from 

314 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  315 

an  economic  standpoint,  since  upon  the  thickness  of  the  beds 
and  their  homogeneity  is  dependent  the  size  and  quality  of 
blocks  obtainable.  If  however  the  beds  are  too  thick  and 
massive  the  expense  of  quarrying  is  greatly  increased,  in  that 
it  necessitates  splitting  out  the  rock  with  wedges  into  conven- 
ient sizes  for  handling,  as  shown  in  plate  IX.  The  varying 
character  of  the  layers  in  these  bedded  rocks  is  often  a  source 
of  trouble  to  the  quarriers.  One  of  the  finest  of  the  Triassic 
sandstones  of  the  Eastern  United  States  is  no  longer  worked, 
for  the  reason  that  the  thick  beds  of  desirable  stone  are  sepa- 
rated by  from  one  to  several  feet  of  thin  shaly  material,  quite 
•worthless,  and  which  involves  so  considerable  an  outlay  for  its 
removal  as  to  destroy  all  profit. 

Naturally  a  stone  splits  most  readily  along  the  line  of  bed- 
ding, or  stratification,  which  is  the  same  thing.  The  same  feat- 
ure is  common  to  many  metamorphic  rocks,  as  the  marbles 
and  gneisses,  and  in  certain  cases  is  due  to  the  same  causes. 
This  direction  of  splitting  most  readily,  is  called  the  rift  as 
already  noted  (p.  39). 

The  position  occupied  by  the  beds  of  stratified  rocks  is  of 
very  great  importance.  If  as  at  Portland,  Connecticut,  and  in 
the  Berea  regions  they  lie  nearly  horizontal  the  process  of 
quarrying  is  greatly  simplified  and  consists  practically  in  cut- 
ting a  vertical  hole  down  into  the  earth,  thus  passing  through 
one  layer  or  bed  after  another.  This  arrangement  has  at  least 
one  disadvantage  in  that  in  a  new  region  the  quarrier  has  noth- 
ing to  guide  him  and  no  means  of  ascertaining  what  the  next 
bed  is  going  to  be  like.  If  on  the  other  hand  the  beds  are 
turned  up  at  a  considerable  angle,  it  is  possible  to  tell  from 
surface  indications  what  quality  of  stone  each  bed  is  likely  to 
produce  and  perhaps  several  varieties  of  stone  may  be  produced 
at  the  same  time  as  in  the  Vermont  marble  quarries,  where  the 
beds  are  comparatively  thin  and  vary  greatly. 


316  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

Obviously  where  the  beds  are  steeply  inclined  or  curved  as 
at  Rutland  the  openings  take  the  form  of  mines  rather  than 
quarries  (see  Plate  V.)  and  the  expense  of  quarrying  is  some- 
what increased.  Another  disadvantage  lies  in  the  fact  that, 
whatever  the  character  of  the  material  for  which  they  have 
orders,  all  the  beds  must  be  worked  down  alike  unless  the 
opening  is  restricted  to  a  single  layer,  which  would  be  scarcely 
profitable. 

Among  the  eruptive  rocks  no  such  bedding  exists  and  in 
very  massive  rocks  it  is  always  necessary  to  split  the  stone  into 
suitable  blocks  by  means  of  under  cutting  or  gadding.  It  is 
fortunate  for  the  quarrier  that  however  massive  a  stone  may 
be,  and  whether  eruptive  or  sedimentary,  Nature  has  in  most 
instances  herself  broken  it  into  blocks  of  varying  sizes  by  means 
of  sharp  seams  or  fractures  called  joints. 

These  vary  greatly,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  rock  in 
which  they  occur,  sometimes  being  so  fine  as  to  be  almost  im- 
perceptible, or  again  perfectly  distinct  and  capable  of  being 
traced  for  many  yards,  or  even  miles.  In  stratified  rocks  (lime- 
stones, sandstones,  schists,  etc.),  according  to  Professor  Geikie, 
the  joints,  "  as  a  rule,"  run  perpendicular,  or  approximately  so, 
to  the  planes  of  bedding,  and  descend  vertically  at  not  very 
unequal  distances,  so  that  the  portions  of  the  rock  between 
them,  when  seen  from  a  distance,  appear  like  so  many  wall-like 
masses.  An  important  feature  of  these  joints,  as  mentioned 
by  this  authority,  is  the  direction  in  which  they  intersect  each 
other.  In  general  they  have  two  dominant  trends,  one  coin- 
cident on  the  whole  with  the  direction  in  which  the  strata  are 
inclined  from  the  horizon,  and  the  other  running  transversely 
at  a  right  angle  or  nearly  so.  The  first  are  called  "  dip  joints" 
or  "  end  joints"  by  the  quarry  men,  since  they  run  with  the  dip 
or  inclination  of  the  rock,  while  the  last  are  called  "  strike  joints," 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  317 

since  they  conform  in  direction  to  the  strike  of  the  rock.    These 
last  are  also  called  "  back  joints." 

In  massive  rocks  like  granite  and  diabase,  joints,  though 
prevalent,  have  not  the  same  regularity  of  arrangement  as  in 
the  stratified  formations ;  nevertheless,  most  rocks  of  this  class 
are  traversed  by  two  intersecting  sets,  whereby  the  rock  is 
divided  into  long,  quadrangular,  rhomboida-1,  or  even  polygonal 
masses.  Frequently,  also,  there  exists  a  third  series  of  joints 
running  in  an  approximately  horizontal  direction,  or  corres- 
ponding more  nearly  with  the  bedding  in  stratified  rocks. 
These  are  called  by  quarrymen  "  bottom  joints,"  since  they 
form  the  bottom  or  floor  of  the  quarry. 

These  joints  owing  to  atmospheric  action  are  usually  more 
conspicuous  at  and  near  the  surface,  and  indeed  often  seem  to 
wholly  disappear  when  the  quarry  is  opened  to  a  sufficient 
depth.  It  is  only  in  appearance  however,  since  from  their  very 
method  of  formation  they  must  extend  far  below  any 'practical 
depth.  Their  apparent  absence  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
faces  of  the  stone  having  been  held  resting  against  one  another 
with  all  the  force  of  their  immense  weight  for  untold  years,  are 
often  more  closely  united  than  would  be  possible  by  any  arti- 
ficial means.  Indeed  the  blocks  are  often  actually  cemented 
together  by  the  deposition  of  an  exceeding  thin  film  of  calcite, 
silica  or  iron  oxide.  The  writer  has  in  mind  a  quarry  of  beau- 
tiful deep  gray  coarsely  crystalline  granitic  rock,  which  when 
first  opened  was  found  so  full  of  joints  that  blocks  of  only  small 
size  and  very  irregular  «shape  could  be  obtained.  So  abundant 
were  these  joints  that  on  the  surface  for  short  distances  the 
stone  would  often  separate  into  slabs  of  but  from  one  to  two 
or  three  inches  in  thickness.  At  a  distance  of  not  above  25 
feet  from  the  surface  the  joints  disappeared  entirely,  and  large, 
handsome  and  apparently  sound  blocks  were  being  taken  out. 
Knowing,  however,  from  the  surface  indications  that  the  joints 


3l8  STOAT£S  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

must  be  there  nevertheles's,  I  looked  for  them  with  care,  and 
on  the  polished  shaft  of  a  finished  monument  was  able  to  point 
out  three,  running  perpendicularly,  each  as  fine,  sharp,  and 
straight  as  though  made  with  a  glazier's  diamond.  They  were 
simply  so  small  as  to  be  overlooked  by  others  than  an  expert. 
Being  there  they  are  bound  in  time  to  open  under  the  persua- 
sive action  of  heat  and  frost.  How  long  a  time  may  elapse 
before  they  will  open  sufficiently  to  become  conspicuous,  can 
be  determined  only  by  actual  experiment.  The  only  safe  way, 
however,  is  to  avoid  them  wholly. 

It  is  the  preponderance  of  joints  of  one  kind  or  another 
that  gives  rise  to  what  are  known  technically  as  block  and  sheet 
quarries.  In  the  one  case,  as  at  Quincy,  Massachusetts,  or  Red 
Beach,  Maine,  the  joints  divide  the  rock  into  approximately 
rectangular  blocks  but  a  few  feet  in  diameter,  and  which  are 
especially  adapted  for  the  finer  grades  of  monumental  work. 
The  quarriers  early  learn  to  recognize  this  fact,  and  in  making 
contracts  govern  themselves  accordingly.  In  other  quarries,  as 
those  of  Hallowell,  Maine  (Plate  VI.),  the  rock  by  a  series  of 
nearly  horizontal  joints  is  divided  up  into  imbricated  layers 
varying  from  the  fraction  of  one  to  six  or  more  feet  in  thick- 
ness and  so  slightly  adhering  to  one  another  as  to  need  almost 
no  artificial  means  to  free  them  from  the  bed.  These  layers,  as 
shown  in  the  plate,  are  thin  at  the  edges  and  gradually  thicken 
toward  the  centre.  Such  are  called  sheet  quarries,  in  distinc- 
tion from  the  block  quarries  just  mentioned,  and  within  the 
limits  of  the  sheet's  thickness  blocks  of  almost  any  desired 
size  may  be  obtained.  At  Vinalhaven  blocks  not  over  10  feet 
in  thickness  and  nearly  300  feet  in  length  have  been  loosened 
from  the  quarry  bed  intact.  In  still  other  quarries  the  bottom 
joints  are  so  numerous  and  persistent  that  sheets  above  10  or 
15  inches  thick  are  rarely  obtainable,  and  in  the  face  of  such  a 
quarry  the  stone  may  be  seen  lying  one  sheet  above  another, 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  319 

each  receding  a  foot  or  more  from  the  one  below  like  a  flight 
of  stairs.  Such  quarries  are  best  adapted  for  furnishing  mate- 
rial for  street  curbs  and  paving  blocks. 

In  the  basic  eruptive  rocks  such  as  the  basalts  and  diabases 
another  form  of  jointing,  due  apparently  to  the  cooling  of  the 
molten  mass,  is  not  infrequent.  This  gives  rise  to  a  series  of  more 
or  less  regular  five  or  six  sided  columns  such  as  are  shown  in 
figures  of  the  Giant's  Causeway  and  Fingal's  Cave.  Such  joint- 
ing practically  ruins  the  stone  for  quarrying  dimensions  material, 
and  fortunately  is  found  to  any  extent  only  in  stones  which  on 
account  of  their  color  and  hardness  are  little  desired  for  archi- 
tectural work. 

The  cause  of  joints,  it  may  be  stated,  has  never  been  fully 
and  satisfactorily  explained.  By  some  they  are  supposed  to  be 
due  to  contraction  caused  by  cooling  or  drying,  and  by  others 
it  is  supposed  that  they  are  fractures  produced  by  earthquakes.* 
Obviously,  the  matter  can  not  be  discussed  here,  and  the  reader 
is  referred  to  the  various  text-books  on  geology.  But  what- 
ever may  have  been  their  origin,  their  presence  is  a  matter  of 
great  importance  to  quarrymen,  and,  indeed,  the  art  of  quarry- 
ing has  been  well  stated  to  consist  in  taking  advantage  of  these 
natural  planes  of  division.  By  their  aid  large  quadrangular 
blocks  can  be  wedged  off  which  would  be  shattered  if  exposed 
to  the  risk  of  blasting,  t 


*W.  O.  Crosby,  Proceedings  Boston  Society  Natural  History,  xxm., 
1885. 

f  A  good  illustration  of  the  utility  of  jointed  structure  as  an  aid  to  quarry- 
ing sedimentary  rocks  is  offered  in  the.  Primordial  conglomerates  about  Boston. 
These  consist  of  a  greenish  gray  groundmass,  in  which  are  embraced  a  great 
variety  of  pebbles  of  granite,  quartzite,  melaphyr,  and  felsite  of  all  shapes  and 
sizes.  The  beds  are  traversed  by  two  series  of  vertical  joints  which  cut  the 
rock  and  its  included  pebbles,  granite,  quartz,  melaphyr,  and  felsite  alike,  with 
almost  as  sharp  and  clear  a  cut  as  could  be  made  by  the  lapidary's  wheel.  The 


32O  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


(2)   GRANITE    QUARRYING. 

The  methods  of  quarrying  naturally  vary  with  the  kind  and 
quality  of  the  material  to  be  extracted.  In  all,  the  object 
aimed  at  is  to  obtain  large  and  well  shaped  blocks  with  the 
least  outlay  of  time  and  money,  and  this,  too,  so  far  as  possible, 
without  the  aid  of  explosives  of  any  kind,  since  the  sudden 
jar  thus  produced  is  extremely  liable  to  develop  incipient  fract- 
ures and  so  shatter  as  to  ruin  valuable  material. 

In  quarrying  granite  there  is  less  to  fear  from  the  use  of 
explosives  than  in  either  sandstone  or  marble,  while,  at  the 
same  time,  the  greater  hardness  of  the  stone  renders  the 
quarrying  of  it  by  other  means  a  matter  of  considerable  diffi- 
culty and  expense. 

In  the  leading  quarries  of  Maine  and  Massachusetts  no 
machinery  is  used  other  than  the  steam  drill  and  hoisting 
apparatus.  By  means  of  the  drills  a  lewis*  hole  or  a  series  of 
lewis  holes  is  put  down  at  proper  intervals  to  a  depth  depend- 
ent upon  the  thickness  of  the  sheets.  These  are  then  charged, 
not  too  heavily,  and  fired  simultaneously.  In  the  Hallowell 
quarries,  where  the  sheets  of  granite  are  entirely  free  from  one 
another,  this  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  loosen  the  blocks  from 
the  quarry,  and  they  are  then  broken  up  with  wedges.  In 
many  quarries,  however,  where  the  sheets  are  thicker  or  the 
bottom  joints  less  distinct,  it  is  necessary  to  drill  a  series  of 
horizontal  holes  along  the  line  where  it  is  wished  to  break  the 
rock  from  the  bed  and  then  complete  the  process  with  wedges. 

joints  are  very  abundant,  and  in  many  cases  quarrying  would  be  a  practical 
impossibility  without  them.  Whenever  smooth  walls  are  required  the  stone  is 
laid  on  its  bed  with  the  joint  face  outward. 

*  I  find  the  word  also  spelled  louis.     For  description  see  Glossary. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


321 


(3)   MARBLE    QUARRYING. 

In  quarrying  marble  and  other  soft  rocks,  channelling  ma- 
chines are  now  largely  used.  These,  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion, run  on  narrow  tracks,  back  and  forth  over  the  quarry 
bed,  cutting  as  they 
go,  vertical  channels 
some  2  inches  in 
width  and  from  4  to 
6  feet  in  depth.  After 
the  channels  are  com- 
pleted a  series  of 
holes  from  8  inches 
to  2  feet  apart  are 
drilled  along  the  bot- 
tom of  the  block, 
which  is  then  split 
from  its  bed  by  means 
of  wedges.  This  under 
drilling  is  called  by 
quarrymen  "  gadd- 
ing," and  special  ma- 
chines, which  are 
known  as  "  gadding 
machines,"  have  been 
designed  for  the  pur- 
pose. (See  figures  On  ^IG>  ^- — WARDWELI.  CHANNELLING  MACHINE. 

pages  340  to  343).  At  the  Vermont  marble  quarries  both  the 
Sullivan  diamond  pointed  drill  and  the  Ingersoll  impact  drill 
are  used  for  gadding.  The  bottom  holes  are  usually  drilled 
to  a  depth  equalling  about  one-half  the  width  of  the  block 
to  be  extracted,  though  this  depth,  as  well  as  the  frequency 


322  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

of  the  holes,  must  necessarily  vary  with  the  character  of  the 
rift  of  the  rock. 

(4)   SANDSTONE    QUARRYING. 

In  the  quarrying  of  the  Triassic  sandstones  at  Portland, 
Connecticut,  the  channelling  machine  is  also  used  to  some 
extent,  but  the  prevailing  method  of  loosening  large  blocks  is 
by  deep  drill  holes  charged  with  heavy  blasts  of  powder. 
These  holes  are  made  by  a  crude  machine  driven  by  cranks, 
like  an  ordinary  derrick,  and  are  10  inches  in  diameter  and 
about  20  feet  deep.  Into  these  are  put  from  25  to  75  pounds 
of  powder,  contained  in  a  flattened  or  oval  tin  cannister,  with 
the  edges  unsoldered  and  closed  at  the  ends  by  paper  or  cloth. 
This  is  placed  in  the  hole  in  such  a  position  that  a  plane  pass- 
ing through  its  edges  is  in  line  with  the  desired  break,  and 
fired.  In  this  way  large  blocks  are  freed  from  the  quarry,  and 
these  are  then  broken  to  any  required  size,  as  follows :  The 
workmen  first  cut  with  a  pick  a  sharp  groove  some  4  to  8  inches 
deep  along  the  full  length  of  the  line  where  it  is  desired  the 
stone  shall  break.  Into  this  groove  are  placed,  at  intervals  of 
a  few  inches,  large  iron  wedges,  which  are  then  in  turn  struck 
repeated  blows  by  heavy  sledge-hammers  in  the  hands  of  the 
quarrymen  until  the  rock  falls  apart.  This  process  will  be 
made  plain  by  reference  to  Plate  IX.  In  some  of  the  quarries 
of  softer  sandstone  no  machines  at  all  are  used,  the  channelling" 
being  done  entirely  by  hand-chisels  or  with  picks,  and  the  stone 
forced  out  by  means  of  iron  bars  alone,  or  split  out  with  plug 
and  feather.  To  allow  of  this,  however,  the  stone  must  be 
evenly  and  thinly  bedded,  and  the  different  sheets  adhere  to 
one  another  with  but  slight  tenacity,  as  is  the  case  with  certain 
of  the  New  York  "  bluestones  "  and  Berea  grits  of  Ohio.  In 
the  New  York  quarries  the  vertical  joints  are  said  to  be  so 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING   AND  DECORATION.  323 

numerous   as   to    practically   do  away  with    the   necessity  of 
channelling. 

Powder  is  still  largely  used  in  most  of  the  smaller  quarries, 
and  in  all  those  of  granitic  rock  for  throwing  off  large  masses. 
If  properly  used  with  these  harder  varieties,  it  is  doubtful  if 
any  serious  harm  results,  but  in  the  quarrying  of  marble  and 
other  soft  stones,  its  use  can  not  be  too  strongly  condemned.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  the  rapid  disintegration  of  the  Carrara 
marble  is  caused  in  part  by  the  incipient  fractures  induced 
through  the  crude  methods  of  quarrying  employed.  Except- 
ing when,  as  in  the  case  of  granite,  no  other  means  can  be 
employed,  explosives  of  all  kinds  are  to  be  avoided.  When 
necessary,  they  should  be  used  in  a  lewis  hole,  whereby  direc- 
tion may  be  given  to  the  force  of  the  discharge  and  the  shock 
distributed  over  large  surfaces. 


(5)   CUTTING  AND  DRESSING  STONE. 

In  cutting  and  dressing  stone  the  same  slow  hand  processes 
that  were  in  vogue  hundreds  of  years  ago  are  still  largely  em- 
ployed. There  have  been,  it  is  true,  many  machines  invented 
for  this  purpose,  but  the  majority  of  them  are  far  from  satis- 
factory in  their  working  qualities,  or  the  cost  of  running  them 
is  so  great  that  they  can  be  used  only  by  the  larger  and 
wealthier  firms.  After  a  large  mass  has  been  split  from  the 
quarry  bed  it  is  broken  into  blocks  of  the  required  size  and 
shape  by  means  of  wedges.  A  series  of  holes,  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  in  diameter  and  a  few  inches  deep,  is  drilled  along  the 
line  where  it  is  desired  the  stone  shall  break,  and  into  each  of 
these  two  thin  half  round  pieces  of  soft  iron  called  "  feathers" 
are  placed,  and  a  small  steel  wedge  or  "plug"  placed  between. 
The  quarryman  then  moves  along  this  line  striking  with  his 


324 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


hammer  each  wedge  in  its  turn  till  the  desired  strain  is  pro- 
duced and  the  stone  falls  apart. 

There  is  a  chance  for  a  greater  display  of  skill  in  this  work 
than  may  at  first  appear.  Nearly  every  stone,  however  com- 
pact, has  a  distinct  grain  and  rift,  along  which  it  can  be  relied 


FIG.  7. ^DRILLING  HOLES  FOR  SPLITTING  STONE  WITH  PLUG  AND  FEATHERS. 

on  to  split  with  comparative  ease  and  safety.  To  know  the 
rift  and  be  able  to  take  proper  advantage  of  it  is  an  important 
item,  and  it  is  astonishing  how  readily  an  experienced  workman 
will  cause  a  stone  to  take  the  desired  shape  through  a  know- 
ledge of  this  property. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


This  process  of  splitting  stone  with  wedges  is  said  *  to 
have  been  first  brought  into  general  use  in  this  country  by  a 
poor  mechanic  named  Tarbox,  of  Danvers,  Massachusetts. 
Through  the  influence  of  Governor  Robbins,  who  stumbled  upon 
samples  of  his  work  by  the  merest  accident,  this  man  was  in- 
duced in  1  798  to  go  to  Quincy  and  teach  his  art  to  the  quarrymen 
of  that  place.  So  much  did  the  adoption  of  this  simple  method 
facilitate  granite-working  that  the  price  of  the  cut  material 
dropped  within  the  space  of  a  few  months  over  60  per  cent. 
Prior  to  this  time  the  stone  after  being  blasted  from  the  quarry 
in  irregular  blocks  was  squarred  down  to  the  proper  size  by 
cutting  a  groove  along  a  straight  line  with  a  sharp-edged  tool 
called  an  axhammer,  and  then  striking  with  a  heavy  hammer 
repeated  blows  on  both  sides  of  the  groove  until  the  rock  was 
broken  asunder.f 

*  Proceedings  American  Academy,  vol.  iv.  1859,  p.  353. 

f  In  Pattee's  History  of  Old  Braintree  and  Quincy  occurs  this  passage  : 
"  On  Sunday,  1803,  the  first  experiment  in  splitting  stone  with  wedges  was 
made  by  Josiah  Bemis,  George  Stearns,  and  Michael  Wilde.  It  proved  suc- 
cessful, and  so  elated  were  these  gentlemen  on  this  memorable  Sunday  that 
they  adjourned  to  Nevvcomb's  hotel,  where  they  partook  of  a  sumptuous  feast. 
The  wedges  used  in  this  experiment  were  flat,  and  differed  somewhat  from 
those  now  in  use.  " 

As  to  who  can  justly  claim  to  be  the  first  to  bring  this  method  of  splitting 
into  general  use  the  author  has  no  means  of  ascertaining.  That  none  of  the 
above  can  justly  claim  to  have  invented  the  process  is  evident  from  the  follow- 
ing : 

"  I  told  thee  that  I  had  been  informed  that  the  grindstones  and  millstones 
were  split  with  wooden  pegs  drove  in,  but  I  did  not  say  that  those  rocks  about 
this  house  could  be  split  after  that  manner,  but  that  I  could  split  them,  and  had 
been  used  to  split  rocks  to  make  steps,  door-sills,  and  large  window  cases  all  of 
stone,  and  pig-troughs  and  water-troughs.  I  have  split  rocks  17  feet  long  and 
built  four  houses  of  hewn  stone,  split  out  of  the  rocks  with  my  own  hands.  My 
method  is  to  bore  the  rock  about  6  inches  deep,  having  drawn  a  line  from  one 
end  to  the  other,  in  which  I  bore  holes  about  a  foot  asunder,  more  or  less, 
according  to  the  freeness  of  the  rock  ;  if  it  be  3  or  4  or  5  feet  thick,  10,  12,  or 


326  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

This  method  is  said  to  have  been   introduced  into  Quincy 
somewhere  about   1725— '50,  by  German  emigrants,  and,  crude 

16  inches  deep.  The  hole  should  be  an  inch  and  a  quarter  diameter  if  the  rock 
be  2  feet  thick,  but  if  it  be  5  or  6  feet  thick  the  holes  should  be  an  inch  and 
three-quarters  diameter.  There  must  be  provided  twice  as  many  iron  wedges 
as  holes,  and  one-half  of  them  must  -be  fully  as  long  as  the  hole  is  deep  and 
made  round  at  one  end,  just  fit  to  drop  into  the  hole,  and  the  other  half  may  be 
made  a  little  longer,  and  thicker  one  way,  and  blunt  pointed.  All  the  holes  must 
have  their  wedges  drove  together,  one  after  another,  gently,  that  they  may 
strain  all  alike.  You  may  hear  by  their  ringing  when  they  strain  well.  Then 
with  the  sharp  edge  of  the  sledge  strike  hard  on  the  rock  in  the  line  between 
every  wedge,  which  will  crack  the  rock  ;  then  drive  the  wedges  again.  It  gen- 
erally opens  in  a  few  minutes  after  the  wedges  are  drove  tight.  Then,  with  an 
iron  bar  or  long  levers,  raise  them  up  and  lay  the  two  pieces  flat  and  bore  and 
split  them  in  what  shape  and  dimensions  you  please.  If  the  rock  is  anything 
free  you  may  split  them  as  true  almost  as  sawn  timber,  and  by  this  method  you 
may  split  almost  any  rock,  for  you  may  add  almost  any  power  you  please  by 
boring  the  holes  deeper  and  closer  together." 

(From  letter  of  John  Bartram  to  Jared  Elliot,  dated  January  24,  1757.  See 
Darlington's  Memorandum  of  Bartram  and  Marshall,  p.  375.)  The  precise  date 
at  which  these  four  stone  houses  were  built  is  not  stated,  but  the  work  above 
quoted  contains  an  illustration  of  John  Bartram's  house,  near  Darby,  Delaware 
County,  Pa.  This  house,  which  is  of  stone,  was  erected  about  1730.  Hence 
we  must  conclude  that  the  art  of  splitting  stone  in  this  manner  was  known  to 
some  at  least  as  early  as  this  date. 

It  is  stated  (Grueber,  Die  Baumaterialien-Lehre,  pp.  60,  61)  that  in  Finland, 
even  at  the  present  day,  granite  is  split  from  the  quarry-bed  through  the  expan- 
sive force  of  ice.  A  series  of  holes,  from  a  foot  to  15  inches  apart  and  from  2 
to  3  feet  deep,  according  to  the  size  of  the  block  to  be  loosened,  is  driven  along 
the  line  of  desired  rift  after  the  usual  custom.  These  holes  are  then  filled  with 
water  and  tightly  plugged.  The  operation  is  put  off  until  late  in  the  season  and 
until  the  approach  of  a  frost.  The  water  in  the  holes  then  freezes,  and  by  its 
expansion  fractures  the  rock  in  the  direction  of  the  line  of  holes.  Blocks  of  400 
tons  weight  are  stated  to  be  broken  out  in  this  way.  A  more  ancient  method 
consisted  in  simply  plugging  the  holes  with  dry  wooden  wedges  and  then 
thoroughly  saturating  them  with  water,  the  swelling  wood  acting  in  the  same 
way  as  the  freezing  water.  Another  ancient  and  well-known  method  consisted 
in  building  a  fire  around  the  stone,  and  when  it  was  thoroughly  heated  striking 
it  with  heavy  hammers  or  throwing  cold  water  upon  it.  In  splitting  stone  the 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  327 

as  it  may  seem,  was  a  vast  improvement  over  that  used  in  pre- 
pairing  stone  for  the  construction  of  King's  Chapel,  erected  m 
i749-'54,  on  the  corner  of  School  and  Tremont  streets,  Boston. 
Here  we  are  told  the  stone  was  first  heated  by  building  a  fire 
around  it,  and  then  broken  by  means  of  heavy  iron  balls  let  fall 
from  a  considerable  height.  With  such  difficulties  as  these  to 
contend  with  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  building  should  have 
been  considered  a  wonder  when  completed,  and  that  people 
coming  to  Boston  from  a  distance  made  it  a  point  to  see  and 
admire  the  structure.  The  wonder,  however,  was  not  that 
the  granite  could  be  broken  into  shape  by  such  methods,  but 
u  that  stone  enough  could  be  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston 
fit  for  the  hammer  to  construct  such  an  entire  building.  But 
it  seemed  to  be  universally  conceded  that  enough  more  like  it 
could  not  be  found  to  build  such  another." 

After  a  block  is  broken  from  the  quarry  bed  it  is  trimmed 
to  the  desired  size  and  shape  by  means  of  a  variety  of  imple- 
ments, according  to  the  hardness  of  the  stone  and  the  charac- 
ter of  the  desired  finish. 

In  dressing  granite  and  other  hard  stone  the  tools  ordinarily 

ancient  Romans  are  said  to  have  sprinkled  the  hot  stone  with  vinegar,  though 
whether  they  thereby  accelerated  the  splitting  or  caused  the  stone  to  break  along 
definite  lines  is  not  known.  Quartz  rocks,  it  is  stated,  can  be  made  to  split  in 
definite  directions  by  wetting  them  while  hot,  or  laying  a  wet  cord  along  the 
line  it  is  desired  they  shall  cleave.  The  wet  line  gives  rise  to  a  small  crack, 
and  the  operation  is  completed  by  striking  heavy  blows  with  wooden  mallets. 
According  to  M.  Raimondi,  the  ancient  Peruvians  split  up  the  stone  in  the  quar- 
ry by  first  heating  it  with  burning  straw  and  then  throwing  cold  water  upon  it. 
To  carve  the  stone  and  obtain  a  bas  relief,  this  writer  contends  that  the  work- 
men covered  with  ashes  the  lines  of  the  designs  which  they  intended  to  have  in 
relief,  and  then  heated  the  whole  surface.  The  parts  of  the  stone  which  were 
submitted  immediately  to  the  action  of  fire  became  decomposed  to  a  greater  or 
less  depth,  while  the  designs,  protected  by  ashes,  remained  intact.  To  com- 
plete the  work  the  sculptor  had  but  to  carve  out  the  decomposed  rock  with  his 
copper  chisel. 


328  STOATES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

used  are  the  set  or  pitching  chisel,  the  spalling  hammer,  pean 
hammer,  bush  hammer,  hand  hammer,  chisel,  and  point.  With 
the  set  the  rough  block  is  trimmed  down  to  a  line.  Then  the 
irregular  surface  is  worked  down  by  the  point,  which  is  driven 
by  the  hand  hammer.  After  pointing,  are  used  the  pean  and 
the  patent  or  bush  hammers  in  turn,  beginning  with  the  4-cut, 
and  thence  working  down  with  the  6-cut,  8-cut,  lo-cut,  and  12- 
cut,  or  until  the  desired  surface  is  obtained.  The  condition  of 
the  hammered  surface  at  the  completion  of  one  of  the  hammer- 
ings should  be  such  that  each  cut  in  the  hammer  traces  a  line 
its  full  length  on  the  stone  at  each  blow. 

The  single  cut  or  pean  hammer  should  leave  no  unevenness 
exceeding  one-eighth  of  an  inch,  and  each  finer  cut  reduces  the 
unevenness  left  by  the  preceding.  The  12-cut  should  leave 
no  irregularities  upon  the  surface  of  the  stone  other  than  the 
indentations  made  by  the  impinging  of  the  plates  in  the  ham- 
mer. The  lines  of  the  cut  are  made  so  as  to  be  vertical  in  ex- 
posed vertical  faces  when  the  block  is  in  position.  On  hori- 
zontal and  unexposed  faces  they  are  cut  straight  across  in  any 
convenient  direction.  With  sawn  surfaces  of  course  much  of 
the  preliminary  work  is  done  away  with,  as  the  surface  is 
already  sufficiently  smooth.  It  is  at  present  customary  to  saw 
only  such  stone  as  are  designed  for  polishing  or  some  kind  of 
smooth  finish. 

In  preparing  a  stone  for  polishing,  the  surface  is  first  made 
smooth  as  possible  by  sawing  or  by  the  means  above  desig- 
nated. It  is  then  further  reduced  by  means  of  wet  sand  and 
emery  of  varing  degrees  of  fineness.  Small  blocks  are  now 
usually  ground  on  a  revolving  iron  bed,  on  which  the  abrading 
material  is  shovelled  and  kept  wet  by  a  stream  of  water  from 
overhead.  With  larger  blocks  a  slab  of  stone  is  drawn  by  the 
workmen  back  and  forth  across  the  surface  on  which  the 
wet  sand  has  already  been  placed.  On  the  finer  grades  of 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING   AND   DECORATION. 


white  marble  emery  is  not  used,  as  it  stains  ;  fortunately, 
owing  to  the  softness  of  these  stones,  it  is  readily  dispensed 
with.  After  being  ground,  the  surface  is  rubbed  by  a  sharp, 
evenly  gritted  sandstone  called  a  hone,  and  then  with  pumice- 
stone. 

On  granites  it  is  often  customary  to  give  a  "  skin  coat  "  by 
rubbing  the  block,  after  the  final  emerying,  on  the  smooth,  wet 
grinding  bed,  without  any  abrading  material,  until  a  perfectly 
smooth  surface  and  dull  polish  is  obtained.  When  this  point 
is  reached  —  and  the  surface  must  be  quite  free  from  scratches 
and  blemishes,  or  a  good  polish  is  impossible  —  the  polish  is 
produced  by  means  of  polishing  putty  (oxide  of  tin)  rubbed  on 
with  wet  felt.  In  cheap  work  it  is  customary  to  use  oxalic 
acid  in  connection  with  or  entirely  in  place  of  the  polishing 
putty.  This  enables  the'production  of  a  polish  with  less  labor, 
but  it  is  also  less  durable. 

A  high  grade  of  polish  can  only  be  produced  by  skilled 
workmen,  and  each  one  has  his  own  peculiar  methods,  varying 
in  trifling  particulars  from  that  given  above.  In  many  of  the 
larger  works  where  steam  power  is  used,  it  is  said  to  be  cus- 
tomary to  mix  a  quantity  of  very  finely  ground  metallic  lead 
with  the  putty.  By  this  means  a  higher  gloss  is  produced,  and 
also  one  that  is  very  durable.  All  the  larger  works  now  use 
machinery  in  both  grinding  and  polishing.  Descriptions  of 
these  will  be  given  in  the  following  chapter. 

Sundry  attempts  have  been  made  to  utilize  the  sand-blast 
process,  so  extensively  used  in  glasswork,  for  carving  on  stone  ; 
but  so  far,  with  few  exceptions,  these  attempts  have  met  with 
but  poor  success.  In  1875-76,  Messrs.  Sheldon  &  Slason,  of 
West  Rutland,  having  a  large  Government  contract  in  prepar- 
ing head-stones  for  soldiers'  graves  in  National  cemeteries,  in- 
troduced the  system  with  considerable  success.  The  process 
consisted  in  covering  those  parts  of  the  stone  to  be  left  uncut 


330  STONES  FOR  BU'ILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

with  an  iron  shield,  while  letters  and  figures  of  chilled  iron  were 
placed  upon  those  portions  which  were  to  stand  out  in  relief. 
The  blast  then  being  directed  against  the  stone  cuts  away  very 
quickly  the  unprotected  parts.  By  this  means  the  name,  com- 
pany, regiment,  and  rank  of  soldiers,  could  be  cut  on  a  stone 
in  less  than  five  minutes,  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  four 
thousand  stones  thus  lettered  and  having  dimensions  of  3  feet 
in  length,  10  inches  in  width,  and  4  inches  in  thickness,  were 
placed  in  the  national  cemeteries  at  a  cost  of  but  $864,000. 
The  sandblast  process  has  also  been  used  with  good  results  on 
the  hard  red  quartzite  of  Sioux  Falls,  as  will  be  noted  later. 

(6)  QUARRYING   AND    SPLITTING   SLATE. 

In  quarrying  slate  the  methods  vary  greatly  according  to 
the  disposition  of  the  beds,  and  no  attempt  will  be  made  here 
at  a  detailed  description.  Ordinary  blasting  powder  is  em- 
ployed in  loosening  the  blocks,  and  great  skill  and  sagacity  is 
shown  by  experienced  quarry-men  in  so  manipulating  the  blast 
as  to  produce  the  desired  effects  of  freeing  the  rock  from  the 
quarry-bed  without  shattering  the  stone.  After  a  block  is  re- 
moved from  the  quarry  it  is  subject  to  special  treatment  ac- 
cording to  the  purpose  to  which  the  stone  is  to  be  put.  If  for 
roofing-slate,  the  block  is  taken  from  the  quarry  to  the  splitters' 
shanty,  where  it  is  taken  in  charge  by  a  splitter  and  his  two 
assistants.  The  first  assistant  takes  the  block  and  reduces  it 
to  pieces  about  2  inches  in  thickness,  and  of  a  length  and 
breadth  a  little  greater  than  those  of  the  slates  to  be  made. 
This  is  done  by  a  process  called  "  sculping,"  which  is  as  fol- 
lows :  A  notch  is  cut  in  one  end  of  the  block  with  the  sculp- 
ing chisel,  and  the  edge  of  this  notch  is  trimmed  out  with  a 
gouge  to  a  smooth  groove  extending  across  the  end  of  the 
block  and  perpendicular  to  the  upper  and  lower  surfaces  ;  the 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


331 


sculping  chisel  is  then  set  into  this  groove  and  driven  with  a 
mallet  until  a  cleft 
starts,  which  by  care- 
ful manipulation  is 
guided  directly  across 
the  block.  The  up- 
per surface  of  the 
block  is  kept  wet  with 
water  so  that  the 
crack  may  be  more 
readily  seen.  If  the 
slate  is  perfectly  uni- 
form in  shape  and 
texture,  and  the  blows 
upon  the  sculping 
chisel  are  directed 
straight  with  the  grain, 
the  crack  follows  the 
grain  in  a  straight  FIG-  8. 

line  across  the  block.  Almost  invariably,  however,  the  crack 
deviates  to  the  right  or  left,  when  it  must  be  brought  back  by 
directing  the  blow  on  the  sculp  in  the  direction  in  which  it  is 
desired  to  turn  the  break,  or  by  striking  with  a  heavy  mallet 
on  that  side  of  the  block  toward  which  it  is  desired  the  crack 
shall  turn.  Some  slates  can  be  sculped  across  the  grain,  but 
nearly  all  must  be  broken  in  this  direction.  From  the  first 
assistant  or  "sculper,"  the  block  goes  to  the  splitter  who  by 
means  of  a  mallet  and  broad  thin  chisel  splits  it  through  the 
middle,  continuing  to  thus  divide  each  piece  into  halves  until 
the  desired  thinness  is  obtained.  It  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
edges  of  the  blocks  moist  from  the -time  they  are  removed  from 
the  quarry  until  they  are  split.  From  the  splitter  the  thin  but 
irregularly  shaped  pieces  pass  to  the  second  assistant  who  trims 


332  STOiVES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

them  into  definite  sizes  and  rectangular  shapes.  This  is  done 
either  by  hand  or  by  machine.  To  trim  by  hand  a  straight 
edged  strip  of  iron  or  steel  is  fastened  horizontally  upon  one 
of  the  upper  edges  of  a  rectangular  block  of  wood  some  2  to  4 
feet  in  length.  The  trimmer  then  lays  the  sheet  of  slate  upon 
the  block  allowing  the  edge  to  be  trimmed  to  project  over  this 
strip,  and  then  by  means  of  a  long  heavy  knife  with  a  bent 
handle  cuts  off  the  overlying  edge,  thus  reducing  it  to  the  re- 
quired size  and  shape,  Two  kinds  of  machines  for  doing  this 
work  are  now  in  use.  In  general  they  may  be  said  to  consist 
of  an  iron  frame-work  some  2^-  feet  high,  with  a  horizontal 
knife-edge  upon  its  upper  edge.  Against  this  knife  is  made 
to  work  by  means  of  a  treadle  another  knife,  curved  in  out-line, 
which  is  thrown  upward  again  by  means  of  a  spring,  after 
being  brought  down  by  the  treadle-movement.  At  right  angles 
to  this  knife-edge,  on  one  side  of  the  machine,  an  iron  arm  pro- 
jects toward  the  workman ;  this  arm  has  notches  cut  into  it  for 
the  different  sizes  of  the  slate.  The  difference  between  the 
two  kinds  of  machines  is  said  to  consist  chiefly  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  cutting-knife,  one  working  as  stated  above,  while 
the  other  revolves  on  an  axle  something  in  the  manner  of  an 
ordinary  corn  cutter.  See  Fig.  8. 

.  Slates  are  sawn  by  means  of  an  ordinary  circular  saw,  such 
as  is  used  in  sawing  lumber,  and  are  planed  by  machines  such 
as  are  used  in  planing  metals,  as  are  other  soft  stone.  Some  of 
the  hard  slates  used  for  tiling  have  to  be  cut  by  means  of  cir- 
cular saws  with  teeth  of  black  diamond.* 

In  trimming  out  school  slates  at  the  Pennsylvania  quarries 


*  Detailed  and  very  closely  resembling  accounts  of  the  methods  of  working 
slate  are  given  by  F.  W.  Sperr,  in  Report  Tenth  Census,  vol.  x,  pp.  38-42,  and 
E.  Prime,  Jr.,  Report  D  3,  vol.  i,  pp.  138-143,  2d  Geology  Survey,  Pennsyl- 
vania. To  these  the  reader  is  respectfully  referred. 


PLATE  X. 


~ 


KINDS  OF  FINISH. 

Fig.  i.   Rockface.  Fig.  4.  Toothed  chiseled. 

Fig.  2  and  3.    Pointed  face.  Fig.  5.   Square  drove. 

Fig.  6.   Patent  hammered. 

To  face  page  333. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  333 

there  is  used  a  square  saw  of  chilled  iron  some  ten  or  twelve 
inches  in  diameter  and  with  one  long  projecting  tooth  at  each 
of  its  four  corners.  This  revolves  with  great  rapidity  and  clips 
off  the  thin  edges  as  quickly  and  neatly  as  could  be  desired. 


(7)    KINDS   OF   FINISH. 

The  more  common  kinds  of  finish  applied  to  stone  are  de- 
scribed below ;  the  figures  on  Plate  X.  being  drawn  from 
samples  in  the  National  collections  at  Washington. 

(1)  Rock  face. — This  is  the  natural  face  of  the  rock  as  broken 
from  the  quarry,  or  but  slightly  trimmed  down  by  the  pitching 
tool.     As  in  this  and  all  the  figures  given,  it  is  frequently  sur- 
rounded by  a  margin  of  drove  work. 

(2)  Pointed  face. — In  this  finish  the  natural  face  of  the  rock 
has  been  trimmed  down  by  means  of  the  sharp-pointed  tool 
called  a  point.     It  is  used  principally  for  exterior  work,  as  in 
the  walls  of  a  building.     Two  common  styles  of  pointing  are 
shown. 

(3)  Ax -hammered  face. — This  finish  is  produced  by  striking 
upon  the  surface  repeated  blows  with  a  sharp-faced  implement 
called  an  ax  or  pean  hammer.     It  closely  resembles  the  next, 
but  is  coarser.     Used  in  steps,  house  trimmings,  and  other  ex- 
terior work. 

(4)  Patent  hammered. — This  finish  is  produced  by  striking 
repeated  blows  upon  the  smooth  surface  of  the  rock  with  the 
rough-faced  implement  called  a  patent  hammer.     Five  grades 
of  fineness  are  commonly  recognized,  the  4-cut,  6-cut,  8-cut,  10- 
cut,  and  12-cut  surfaces,  made  by  hammers  composed  of  four, 
six,  eight,  ten,  and  twelve  plates,  respectively.     A  very  common 
finish  for  the  finer  kinds  of  exterior  work. 

(5)  Bush  hammered. — This  finish  resembles  closely  the  tooth 


334  STOATES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

chiseled  or  very  fine  pointing.  It  is  used  mostly  on  soft 
stone.  (See  descriptions  of  bush  and  patent  hammers  on 
p.  348). 

(6)  Square  drove. — The  square  drove  surface  is  made  with 
a  wide  steel  chisel  with  a  smooth  edge,  called  a  drove.      It 
is  quite  common  to   use  this  style  of  finish  as  a  border  to 
the  rock-face  or  pointed  surfaces  in  many  kinds  of  exterior 
work. 

(7)  Tooth  chiselled. — This  finish  is  produced  by  means  of  a 
wide    steel   chisel   with  an    edge  toothed   like   that  of   a  saw. 
This  and  the  square  drove  are  used  principally  upon  limestones, 
marbles,  and  sandstones,  the  granites  being  too  hard  to  cut  in 
this  manner. 

(8)  Sawed  face. — This  is  the  surface  of  the  rock  as  left  by  the 
saw  ;  the  saw  used  for  the  purpose  being  a  thin,  smooth  blade 
of  soft  iron,  fed  with  sharp  sand  or  chilled  iron.     This  and  the 
following  styles,  although  possessing  distinctive  characteristics 
easily  recognizable  by  the  eye,  are  of  such  a  nature  that  their 
likenesses   cannot    be  well  reproduced  on    paper.     Hence  no 
attempt  at  illustration  has  been  mcide. 

(9)  Fine  sand  finish.- — To  produce  this  finish  the  chiselled 
or   sawn    surface    is   rubbed    smooth    by   means    of   a   block 
of  stone  and  fine  wet  sand,  or  on   the  machines  yet  to  be 
described. 

(10)  Pumice  finish. — This  is  a  very  smooth  but  unpolished 
surface  produced  by  smooth  rubbing  with  pumice  or  Scotch 
hone. 

(11)  Polished  surface. — Two  kinds  of  polished  surfaces  are 
made — the  acid   gloss  and    the  putty  gloss.     For   either  the 
surface  of  the  stone  is  made  as  smooth  as  possible  by  means  of 
sand,  or  emery,  and  pumice,  or  hone,  after  which  it  is  rubbed 
with  moist  woollen  cloth  and  oxalic  acid,  or  polishing  putty. 
The  latter  produces  the  best  and  most  lasting  gloss,  but  re- 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


335 


quires  more  labor.     Frequently  the  two  methods  are  combined, 
especially  in  tombstone  work. 


MACHINES  AND  IMPLEMENTS  USED  IN  STONE- WORKING, 
(l)    DRILLS   AND    DRILLING   MACHINES. 

Of  the  many  machines  that  have  from  time  to  time  been  in- 
vented for  working  stone  we 
can   here  mention  only  the 
principal  ones  that  are  to-day 
in  actual  use. 

Drills.  — The  old  time 
method  of  drilling  by  means 
of  a  flat  pointed  drill  called 
a  jumper,*  which  is  held  by 
one  workman  while  others 
strike  upon  it  alternate  blows 
with  heavy  hammers,  al- 
though still  in  use  at  many 
quarries,  has  been  largely 
superseded  by  steam-drills  of 
various  kinds.  A  simple 
form  of  the  steam-drill,  and 
one  now  in  very  general  use, 
is  that  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying figure.  The  drill  FIG.  9  —ECLIPSE  ROCK  DRILL. 

proper  is  fastened  directly  to  the  piston,  which  can  be  inclined 

*  In  English  quarries  the  name  jumper  is  given  to  a  hand  drill  some  four 
and  a  half  to  five  and  a  half  feet  long  and  with  an  iron  ball  welded  to  the  middle 
of  the  rod.  In  using  it  the  workman  places  one  hand  under  the  ball  or  the 
knob,  and  with  the  other  grasps  the  rod  about  half  way  between  the  knob  and 


336 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


at  any  angle,  thus  fitting  it  for  ordinary  quarrying  or  for  tun- 
nelling. It  is  driven  either  by  steam  or  by  compressed  air.  A 
different  adaptation  of  the  same  principle  is  employed  in  the 
channelling  and  gadding  machines  used  in  getting  out  dimen- 
sion stone.  Figures  of  these  are  also  here  given.  The  drill 
and  cylinder  are  attached  to  the  horizontal  bar  by  means  of  a 
clamp,  which  can  be  loosened  or  tightened  at  will.  By  this 
means  a  dozen  or  more  holes  can  be  cut  by  simply  sliding  the 
drill  along  the  bar  and  without  moving  the  entire  machine. 


(2)   CHANNELLING   MACHINES. 

The  channelling  machine  shown  on  page  321  was  invented 

by  George  J.  Ward  well  of 
Rutland,  Vermont.  The  first 
successful  machine  being 
built  by  him  in  1863. 

As  may  be  seen,  the 
channeller  is  essentially  a 
locomotive  machine  driven 
by  power,  usually  steam, 
moving  over  a  steel-rail  track 
which  is  placed  on  the  quarry 
bed.  It  carries  a  single  gang- 
drill  on  one  side,  or  two 

FIG.  io.— IMPROVED  QUARRY  BAR.  SUcll       drills One       Oil       each 

side.     These  are  raised  and  dropped  by  a  lever  and  crank  ar- 


the  upper  end.  Then  standing  upright  on  the  block  of  stone  he  lifts  the  jumper 
allowing  it  to  fall  again  of  its  own  weight  repeatedly  upon  the  spot  where  the 
hole  is  to  be  made.  It  is  mainly  used  in  drilling  small  holes  for  plug  and 
leather  splitting.  (Harris'  Granite  and  our  Granite  Industries,  p.  117.) 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 


337 


rangement.  The  gang  of  cutters  forming  the  drill  is  composed 
of  five  steel  bars,  7  to  14  feet  in  length,  sharpened  at  the 
end  and  securely  clamped  together.  Of  the  five  cutters, 
two  have  diagonal  edges  ;  the  other  three  their  edges  trans- 
verse. The  centre  of  the  middle  largest  extends  lowest, 
so  that  the  five  form 
something  like  a 
stepped  arrangement, 
away  from  the  centre. 
The  drill,  lifted,  drops 
with  great  force  and 
rapidly  creases  a  chan- 
nel into  the  rock. 
The  single  gang  ma- 
chine is  operated  by 
two  men,  the  double 
by  three.  As  it  runs 
backward  and  for- 
ward over  the  rock 
the  machine  is  re- 
versed without  stop- 
ping, and  as  it  goes 
the  cutters  deliver 
their  strokes,  it  is 
claimed,  at  the  rate- 
of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  per  minute.  The  ~ U.- 
machine  feeds  for-  ATTACHED. 

ward  on  the  track  half  an  inch  at  each  stroke,  cutting  half  an 
inch  or  more  every  time  of  passing.  The  single  machine  will 
cut  from  40  to  80  square  feet  of  channel  per  day  in  marble  or 
limestone  and  at  a  cost  of  from  5  to  20  cents  per  square  foot. 


33?  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


The  double  machine  will  do  twice  the  amount  of  work.  A 
good  workman  by  the  old  hand  process  would  formerly  cut 
from  5  to  10  feet ;  that  is,  a  groove  one  foot  deep  and  from  5 
to  10  feet  long  per  day.  For  this  he  would  receive  from  25  to 
30  cents  per  foot.* 

Another  machine  for  doing  the  same  work  as  that  just  de- 
scribed is  the  Saunders  channelling  machine  shown  in  the 
illustration  (Figs.  11  and  12),  and  which  has  recently  come 
into  use  in  the  Vermont  quarries.  This  differs  from  the 
Wardwell  in  several  important  particulars,  prominent  among 

which  are  these  :  (i) 
The  cutting  tool  is 
attached  rigidly  to  the 
piston,  so  that  the 
blow  is  dealt  directly 
by  the  steam  pressure 
in  the  cylinder  and 
without  the  interven- 
tion of  any  cranks, 
levers,  or  springs.  (2) 
The  cutting  tools  are 
made  adjustable  at  any 
angle— to  the  right, 

FIG.  12.— SAUNDERS  CHANNELLING  MACHINE  MAKING        \Q^    forward     OT    back- 
SIDEHILL  CUTS — BOILERS  DETACHED. 

ward.      The     machine 

is  thus  capable  of  making  transverse  and  sidehill  cuts,  and 
does  what  is  known  as  "  cutting  out  the  corners  "  in  quarry- 
ing ;  and  (3)  it  can  be  used  in  chambers  where  the  distance 
between  the  floor  and  roof  is  but  six  feet  and  can  be  used  in 
tunnels  and  headings. 

The  machine   carries   five  drills    in   the  gang,   with  three 

*The  Marble  Border  of  Western  New  England,  p.  44. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


339 


straight  points  and  two  diagonal    ones.     These  are  arranged  as 
seen  in  the  accompanying  cut  : 

The  average  capacity  of  the  machine,  as  claimed  by  the  com- 
pany's circular,  is  as  follows  : 

In  marble,  80  to  100  square  feet  of  channel  in  ten 
hours. 

In  sandstone,  150  to  200  square  feet  of  channel  in 
ten  hours. 

In  limestone,  120  to  150  square  feet  of  channel  in 
ten  hours. 

The  diamond  channelling  machine  is 
shown  in  the  figure  on  page  340.  According 
to  the  company's  circular  this  machine  employs  if  inch  drill-bits, 
which  are  attached  to  drill-rods  of  varying  lengths,  adapted  to 
any  required  depth  of  channel  up  to  Qjfeet.  The  channel  may 
be  made  open  or  partly  closed,  the  latter  by  leaving  slight 
spaces  between  the  holes,  to  be  afterward  chipped  out.  But 
the  whole  operation  of  a  clear  cut  is  made  simultaneously  with 
the  boring  by  means  of  an  intercutting  guide,  which  answers 
this  purpose  very  well.  The  drill  can  be  made  to  vary  in  di- 
rection from  perpendicular  to  50  degrees  slant  for  putting 
down  the  tunnel  and  angle  cuts.  If  necessary  the  boiler  can 
be  left  at  a  distance  from  the  machine,  the  steam  being  con- 
veyed by  hose. 


340 


STOATS  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


(3)    GADDING   AND   GADDING   MACHINES. 

The  diamond  gadder  is  shown  on  page  341.     According 
to  the  company's  circular  the  machine  takes  its  name  from 

the  class  of  work  for  which 
it  was  especially  designed 
and  which  is  known  among 
quarriers  as  gadding.  When 
the  requisite  channel  cuts 
are  made  about  a  block  of 
marble  to  be  removed,  it 
is  necessary  to  undercut 
the  block  in  order  to  release 
it.  This  is  usually  accom- 
plished by  drilling  a  series 
of  holes  beneath  it,  and 
then,  by  wedges,  the  block 
is  split  from  its  bed. 

The  machine  is  placed 
upon  a  platform  on  trucks 
arranged  to  run  upon  a 
track.  When  adjusted  for 
work  it  may  be  braced  by 
the  pointed  legs  shown. 
The  boring  apparatus  is 
attached  by  a  swivel  to  a 
perpendicular  guide  -  bar. 
This  guide-bar  is  secured  to  the  boiler  behind  it,  which  forms 
the  main  support  of  the  machine.  Upon  the  guide-bar  the 
boring  apparatus  may  be  raised  or  lowered  at  pleasure,  for 


FIG.  14. — DIAMOND  CHANNELLING  MACHINE. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


341 


the  purpose  of  boring  a  series  of  holes  in  a  perpendicular 
line  if  desired.  Upon  the  swivel  the  boring  apparatus  may 
be  turned,  so  as  to  bore  in  any  direction  within  the  plane 
of  the  swivel-plate. 

The  illustration  shows  the  drill-rod  or  spindle  placed  near 
the  base  of  the  ma- 
chine, and  so  as  to 
bore  horizontally.  At 
one  end  of  the  spindle 
is  the  drill  -  head, 
armed  with  carbons, 
and  supplied  with 
small  apertures  or 
outlets  for  water.  At 
the  other  end  of  the 
spindle  is  attached  a 
hose  for  supplying 
water  to  the  drill- 
head.  A  rapid  re- 
volving movement  is 
communicated  to  the 
drill-spindle  by  the 
gears  shown.  The 
speed  and  feed  move- 
ment may  be  regu- 
lated by  the  operator 
with  reference  to  the 
hardness  or  softness, 
coarseness  or  fineness,  of  the  material  to  be  bored  ;  and  the 
feed  movement  may  be  instantly  reversed  at  pleasure.  The 
machine  is  so  constructed  that  the  drill-spindle  may  be  re- 
moved and  another  inserted  in  the  same  holder,  adjusted  to 
bore  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  boring  apparatus  being 


FIG.  15. — DIAMOND  GADDER. 


342 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


driven  by  a  double-cylinder  engine.     A  continuation  of  one 
of  the  piston-rods  through  the  cylinder  forms  the  plunger  to 

a  small  pump  placed  above 
the  cylinder,  which  supplies 
water  to  the  boiler  and  also 
forces  it  through  the  drill- 
spindle  and  head.  These  jets 
of  water  wash  out  all  the 
borings  made,  and  keep  the 
drill-head  from  heating.  The 
usual  feed  of  this  drill  in 
marble  is  from  4  to  5  inches 
per  minute. 

Still  another  style  of  gad- 
ding-machine  is  used  in  the 
Vermont  quarries,  and  which 
is  but  an  especial  adaptation 
of  the  eclipse-drill  shown  on 
page  335.  It  is  claimed  that 

FIG.  I6.-INGERSOL  STANDARD  GADDER  t^Js      machine     will      "  put      in 

holes  close  to  the  bottom  of 

the  quarry,  in  a  horizontal  position  along  the  bench,  into  the 
roof,  or  perpendicularly  into  the  floor,  as  desired." 


(4)   GRINDING  AND   POLISHING   MACHINES. 

In  the  larger  works  the  grinding  and  polishing  already 
described  is  now  done  by  steam  power.  For  flat  surfaces  a 
circular  horizontally  revolving  iron  plate  or  grating,  attached 
to  the  lower  end  of  a  vertical  shaft,  with  elbow  joint,  is  used, 
the  workman  guiding  it  to  any  portion  of  the  surface  he  may 
desire  by  means  of  the  handle ;  the  abrading  substance  being 


S7VNES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  343 


sand  or  emery,  as  before.  With  felt  attached  to  the  plate 
the  same  form  of  machine  is  also  used  for  polishing.  Blocks 
of  such  size  as  can  be  handled  by  the  workmen  are  usually 
ground  upon  horizontally  revolving  iron  beds  some  8  or  10 
feet  in  diameter. 

In  making  straight  or  only  slightly-curved  moldings  the 
form  is  first  carved  out  with 
the  chisel,  and  then  a  plate  of 
cast  iron,  fitted  as  accurately 
as  possible,  is  made  by  means 
of  a  long  arm,  to  travel  back 
and  forth  over  the  stone  with 
sand  or  emery,  or  putty  powder 
and  felt,  as  the  case  may  be. 

These  are   Called    pendulum   ma-    FlG-  I?.-PLAIN  QUARRY  FRAME  IN  POSITION 
111  •  FOR  UNDERCUTTING  OR  GADDING. 

chines.      The    actual    labor    is 

thus  greatly  reduced,  and  a  higher  and   more  lasting  polish 

obtained  than  is  possible  by  the  old  hand  methods. 


(5)   LATHES  AND   PLANERS. 

For  turning  posts  and  pillars  lathes  are  now  very  generally 
used  for  granite  as  well  as  for  softer  stone.  In  easy  working 
varieties,  as  sandstone,  limestone,  or  serpentine,  the  cutting 
tool  is  a  simple  chisel,  much  like  that  used  in  turning  metals, 
and  held  in  a  clamp  in  the  same  manner.  With  the  harder 
rocks,  like  the  granites,  however,  this  method  is  ineffectual,  and 
the  cutting  tool  is  in  the  form  of  a  thin  steel  disk  some  6  or  8 
inches  in  diameter,  which  is  so  arranged  as  to  revolve  with  the 
stone  in  the  lathe  when  pressed  against  it  at  a  sharp  angle.  By 
this  means  large  and  beautiful  columns  can  be  made  at  far  less 
cost  than  by  the  old  hand-processes.  A  monster  machine  of 


344  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


this  character,  seen  by  the  writer  in  the  Vinalhaven  quarries  in 
1880,  is  capable  of  taking  a  block  25  feet  in  length  and  5  feet 
in  diameter  and  turning  it  down  to  a  perfect  column. 

With  the  softer  varieties  of  stone  a  plain  surface,  sufficiently 
smooth  for  flagging,  is  produced  by  means  of  planing  machines 
similar  to  those  in  use  for  planing  metals.  For  doing  the  same 
work  on  hard  material  like  granite  a  planer,  with  revolving 
cutting  disks  of  chilled  iron,  similar  to  those  used  in  the  lathes, 
has  been  devised.  This  machine  is  shown  in  the  accompany. 

figure,  page  346. 


(6)  MACHINES  FOR  SAWING, 

In  sawing  marble  and  other  soft  stones  the  same  method, 
with  some  modifications,  is  employed  as  was  in  use,  according 
to  Professor  Seely,*  three  hundred  years  before  the  Christian 
era. 

The  principle  consists  simply  of  a  smooth  flat  blade  of  soft 
iron,  set  in  a  frame  and  fed  with  sharp  sand  and  water.  The 
saws  are  now  frequently  set  in  gangs  of  a  dozen  or  more  in  a 
single  frame,  and  several  gangs  are  tended  by  one  man,  who 
shovels  on  the  wet  sand  as  it  is  needed,  while  fine  streams  of 
water  from  overhead  wash  it  beneath  the  blade  as  it  swings 
backward  and  forward  in  its  slowly  deepening  groove.  Some 
attempts  at  automatic  feeders  have  been  made,  but  they  are 
not  as  yet  in  general  use, 

This  method  has  been  found  inapplicable  to  cutting  granite, 
owing  to  the  greater  hardness  of  the  material.  Recently  a 


*  The  Marble  Border  ot  Western  New  England.     Proceedings  Middlebury 
Historical  Society,  vol.  i.  part  n.  p.  28. 


STOArES  FOR   BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  345 

sand  composed  of  globules  of  chilled  iron  has  been  used  to 
good  advantage,  and  still  more  recently  crushed  steel.  The 
great  drawback  to  the  use  of  these  materials,  so  far  as  the 
author  has  observed,  is  the  care  necessary  to  avoid  staining  the 
stone  by  rust  from  the  wet  metal  during  the  time  the  machine 
is  not  running.  This  is  done  by  wetting  down  the  stone  in  the 
saw  frame  with  a  thick  solution  of  lime-water  (whitewash)  prior 
to  leaving  the  saws  for  the  night.  Circular  saws,  with  diamond 
teeth,  have  been  used  to  some  extent,  but  have  been  found 
too  expensive  for  ordinary  work.  In  sawing  slate  circular  saws 
are  used,  such  as  are  employed  in  sawing  lumber.  Philo  Tom- 
linson,  who  was  engaged  in  marble  sawing  at  Marbledale, 
Connecticut,  near  the  date  1800,  is  stated  by  Professor  Seely* 
to  have  been  one  of  the  first  to  successfully  apply  the  gang-saw- 
system  in  this  country. 

For  sawing  circular  apertures  in  the  tops  of  wash-stands  or 
getting  out  tops  for  small  tables  a  saw  made  of  plates  of  soft 
iron  bent  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder  and  revolved  by  a  vertical 
shaft  is  used.  Sand,  emery,  or  globules  of  chilled  iron  form  the 
cutting  material,  as  in  the  saws  just  mentioned. 

A  recent  European  invention  for  sawing  stone  consists 
of  a  twisted  cord  of  steel  made  to  run  around  pulleys  like 
a  band-saw.  The  cord  is  composed  of  three  steel  wires, 
loosely  twisted  together,  but  stretched  tightly  over  the  pul- 
leys, and  is  made  to  run  at  a  high  rate  of  speed.  The  swift 
successive  blows  from  the  ridges  of  the  cord,  delivered  along 
the  narrow  line,  disintegrates  the  stone  much  more  rapidly, 
it  is  claimed,  than  the  iron  blades  fed  with  sand,  the  usual 
rate  of  cutting  in  blocks  of  soft  limestone  being  about  24 
inches  an  hour,  and  in  Carrara  marble  a  little  more  than  9 
inches  an  hour.  Brittany  granite  is  cut  at  the  rate  of  nearly 

*  Op.  cit.  p.  29. 


346 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


i\  inches  an  hour,  and  even  porphyry  can  be  worked  at  the 
rate  of  eight-tenths  of  an  inch  an  hour.  In  certain  Belgian 
marble  quarries  the  saw  is  said  to  have  been  used  to  advantage 
in  cutting  the  rock  from  the  quarry  bed.  In  thus  utilizing  it 
the  floor  is  first  cleared  as  for  channelling  machines,  and 

then,  by  means  of  large 
cylindrical  drills,  fed  with 
metallic  sand,  a  shaft  27 
inches  in  diameter  is  cut 
to  the  desired  depth,  the 
cores  being  removed  en- 
tire, as  in  the  common 
tubular  diamond  drills. 
Two  of  these  holes  are 
sunk  at  proper  distances 
apart  and  guides  set  up 
in  them,  on  which  move 
frames  carrying  pulleys 
of  a  diameter  somewhat 
less  than  that  of  the 
holes ;  over  these  pul- 
leys the  cord  saw  is 
stretched  ;  motion  is 
then  imparted  to  the 
pulleys  by  a  simple  sys- 
tem of  transmission,  and 
the  saws  cut  without  in- 
terruption until  the  bot- 
tom of  the  drill-pit  or 

FIG.  18.— MCDONALD  STONE  CUTTING  MACHINE.          shaft       is       readied.         A 

great  saving  of  time  and  material  is  claimed  for  this  invention, 
but  although  it  seems  to  promise  well  it  is  not  at  present 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  347 


in  use  in  this  country,  nor  has  the  author  ever  had   oppor- 
tunity for  examining  it.* 

(7)   THE 'SAND   BLAST. 

As  already  noted,  the  sand  blast  has  been  utilized  to  some 
extent  in  the  work  of  lettering  head-stones,  and  for  producing 
delicate  tracings  on  the  Sioux  Falls  quartzite.  That  the  pro- 
fess is  still  so  little  used  is  due,  as  I  am  informed,  to  the  oppo- 
sition of  trades-unions,  and  not  to  any  deficiency  of  adapt- 
ability in  the  process  itself. 

(8)   HAND   IMPLEMENTS. 

Face  Hammer. — This  is  a  heavy  square-faced  hammer, 
weighing  from  15  to  25  pounds,  and  used  for  roughly  shaping 
the  blocks  as  they  come  from  the  quarry.  It  is  sometimes 
made  with  both  faces  alike  or  again  with  one  face  flat  and  the 
other  drawn  out  into  a  cutting  edge  (Fig.  10,  PI.  XI.)  The  cavil 
differs  only  in  having  one  face  drawn  out  into  a  pyramidal 
point. 

Ax  or  pean  hammer. — A  hammer  made  with  two  opposite 
cutting  edges,  as  seen  in  Fig.  13,  PI.  xi.  The  edges  are  some- 
times toothed  roughly,  when  it  is  called  the  toothed  ax. 

Patent  or  bush  hammer. — A  hammer  made  of  four,  six, 
eight,  ten,  or  more  thin  blades  of  steel,  bolted  together  so  as  to 
form  a  single  piece,  the  striking  faces  of  which  are  deeply  and 
sharply  grooved.  This  hammer  is  said  to  have  been  invented 
by  Mr.  Joseph  Richards,  of  Quincy,  Massachusetts,  about 

*  This  apparatus  was  figured  and  described  in  the  Scientific  American  for 
March  6,  1886,  p.  147.  A  more  detailed  description,  fully  illustrated,  has  since 
appeared  in  Stone  (Indianapolis,  Indiana),  Sept.,  1889. 


34-S  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

i83i-'4O.  As  first  constructed  the  head  was  composed  of  a 
single  piece,  instead  of  several,  as  now  (see  Fig.  12,  PI.  XI).  In 
some  works  this  is  called  the  bush  hammer. 

Crandall. — This  consists  of  a  bar  of  malleable  iron,  about  2 
feet  in  length,  and  slightly  flattened  at  one  end,  through  which 
is  a  slot  three-eighths  of  an  inch  wide  and  3  inches  long. 
Through  this  slot  are  passed  ten  double-headed  points  of  one- 
fourth  inch  square  steel,  9  inches  long,  which  are  held  in  place 
by  a  key. 

The  writer  has  never  seen  this  instrument  in  use. 

Hand  hammer. — A  smooth-faced  hammer,  with  two  striking 
faces,  weighing  from  2  to  5  pounds.  It  is  used  for  hand-dril- 
ling, pointing,  and  chiselling  in  the  harder  kinds  of  rocks  (see 
Fig.  1 6,  PI.  Xl).  The  usual  form  has  both  faces  alike. 

Mallet. — This  is  a  wooden  implement,  with  a  cylindrical 
head,  used  in  place  of  the  hammer  in  cutting  the  softer  stones, 
as  marbles  and  sandstones  (Fig.  15,  PL  Xl). 

Sledge  or  striking  hammer. — A  heavy,  smooth-faced  ham- 
mer, weighing  from  10  to  25  pounds,  used  in  striking  the  drills 
in  hand-drilling  or  in  driving  large  wedges  for  splitting  stone, 
Fig.  11,  PL  XI. 

Pick. — An  instrument  resembling  the  ordinary  pickax  used 
in  digging,  but  somewhat  shorter  and  stouter.  It  is  used  on 
the  softer  varieties  of  stones,  for  rough  dressing  or  for  channel- 
ling prior  to  wedging. 

Pitching  chisel. — A  steel  chisel,  the  cutting  face  of  which  is 
rectangular  in  outline  and  with  sharp  angles  or  corners.  It  is 
used  for  trimming  down  the  edges  to  a  straight  line.  See  Fig. 
7,  PL  XL  The  chipper  (Fig.  6)  is  used  for  very  similar  pur- 
poses. 

Chisel  or  drove. — This  is  a  steel  chisel,  the  cutting  edge  of 
which  is  drawn  out  wide  and  thin  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  PL  XI.  It 


zr  1 7  EH  SIT  7 


PLATE    XI. 


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HAND  IMPLEMENTS  USED  IN  STONE  WORKING. 


To  face  page  349, 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  349 

is  used  principally  on  the  softer  varieties  of  rock  in  producing 
the  so-called  "drove-work." 

Splitting  chisel. — A  steel  chisel,  made  as  shown  in  Fig.  8,  PL 
XI,  and  used  for  splitting  and  general  cutting  on  hard  stone  like 
granite.  Other  forms  of  chisels,  used  only  on  soft  stone  and 
driven  with  the  wooden  mallet,  are  shown  in  Figs.  3  and  9. 

Tooth  chisel. — A  chisel  like  the  drove  chisel,  but  with  the 
edge  toothed  like  a  saw  (see  Fig.  I,  PI.  XI),  used  only  on  soft 
stones  like  marble  and  sandstones. 

Point. — A  steel  implement,  with  the  cutting  end  in  the  form 
of  a  pyramidal  point  (see  Fig.  4,  PL  xi),  used  in  the  production 
of  the  finish  known  as  point  work  and  also  in  the  smoothing 
down  of  rough  surfaces  prior  to  using  the  ax  or  some  other 
tool  for  fine  work.  Points  for  use  on  hard  stone  and  driven  by 
the  hammer  have  the  upper  end  finished  as  shown  in  Figs.  6 
and  7. 

Wedge  or  plug. — Steel  wedges  vary  greatly  in  size.  Those 
used  in  the  process  of  splitting,  called  plug  and  feather  (Fig. 
14,  PL  xi),  are  but  two  or  3  inches  in  length,  while  those  used 
in  quarrying  for  splitting  off  large  blocks  are  often  a  foot  or 
more  long  and  correspondingly  large. 

Hand  drill. — A  small  steel  drill  from  8  to  15  inches  in 
length,  held  in  one  hand  and  driven  by  the  hand-hammer  (Fig. 
5),  used  in  making  holes  for  "  plug  and  feather  "  splitting  and 
other  light  work. 

Grub  saw. — A  saw  for  cutting  stone  by  hand.  It  consists  of 
a  plate  of  soft  iron  from  one-twentieth  to  one-tenth  of  an  inch 
in  thickness  and  from  6  inches  to  4  feet  in  length  ;  the  blade  is 
notched  on  the  lower  edge  and  fitted  with  a  wooden  back  for 
convenience  in  handling  and  to  prevent  bending.  Sand  or 
emery  is  the  cutting  material,  as  with  the  steam  saws  (Fig.  17, 
PL  XI). 


35°  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


THE   WEATHERING  OF   BUILDING  STONE. 

That  all  stone  are  not  equally  well  adapted  for  the  various 
kinds  of  structural  purposes  must  be  apparent  to  the  most 
casual  observer.  Not  merely  is  there  a  wide  difference  in  dur- 
ability among  stones  of  various  kinds,  but  materials  well  adapt- 
ed for  some  situations  may,  owing  to  an  inherent  weakness 
prove  quite  unfit  for  use  where  climatic  or  other  conditions  are 
such  as  to  render  injuriously  conspicuous  defects  wholly  unap- 
parent  under  more  favorable  circumstances.  Stones,  as  a 
whole,  do  not  possess  the  firm  and  unchangeable  characteris- 
tics commonly  attributed  to  them  by  the  popular  mind.  There 
is  perhaps  as  wide  a  variation  in  lasting  qualities  as  among 
woods,  mortars  and  cements. 

It  is  true  that  the  various  detrimental  changes  which  may 
take  place  are  often  the  product  of  years  of  exposure,  but  this 
is  no  excuse  for  the  ignoring  of  such  a  possibility.  He  who 
designs  or  constructs  a  house  builds  not  for  himself  alone,  but 
for  the  entire  community  and  for  future  as  well  as  present 
generations. 

Whatever  he  may  do  with  the  interior  is  to  a  certain  extent 
his  own  affair,  but  not  so  with  the  exterior.  The  construction 
of  a  dwelling,  business  block,  public  building  or  monument,  is 
a  matter  in  which  each  individual  citizen  has  a  perfect  right  to 
have  an  active  interest,  since  the  structure  once  erected  be- 
comes for  a  time  a  fixed  feature  of  the  landscape  and  an  object 
by  which  not  merely  the  taste  and  abilities  of  the  architect 
and  builder  are  to  be  judged,  but  that  of  the  community  as 
well. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  351 

The  external  features  of  the  structure  are  constantly  before 
the  public  and  must  exercise  some  influence  either  beneficial 
or  derogatory  upon  public  taste.  It  behooves  the  builder 
therefore,  quite  aside  from  all  economic  considerations,  to 
select  for  his  purpose  such  material  as  shall  be  most  harmoni- 
ous in  the  finished  structure,  and  possess  as  well  such  qualities 
as  shall  be  enabled  to  withstand  the  ravages  of  time  without 
serious  injury. 

There  are  few  things  more  conspicuously  unsightly  than  a 
rich  and  elaborate  building  constructed  from  materials  which 
under  the  ordinary  chemical  and  physical  agencies  of  the  atmo- 
sphere have  become  discolored  or  disintegrated.  Yet  our 
cities  and  towns  are  replete  with  illustrations  of  such  lack  of 
forethought  or  of  ignorance  on  the  part  of  builders. 

One  of  America's  greatest  architects  has  designed  a  struct- 
ure of  more  than  ordinary  merit,  but  in  which  the  walls  are 
of  massive  granite,  while  the  window  stools,  caps,  cornices  and 
projections  in  general,  which  of  all  parts  of  the  structure  are 
most  liable  to  injury  from  disintegration,  are  of  a  soft  and  fri- 
able sandstone.  The  items  of  color  and  cost  alone  were  ap- 
parently here  considered.  The  Executive  Mansion  and  por- 
tions of  the  Patent  Office  and  Capitol  buildings  in  Washington 
are  of  a  sandstone  so  poor  in  enduring  qualities  that  it  has 
been  found  necessary  to  paint  them  periodically  in  order  to 
keep  them  in  a  condition  anyway  presentable. 

The  gigantic  pile  designed  as  a  monument  to  the  Father  of 
his  Country  and  which  stands  upon  the  banks  of  the  Potomac 
in  this  same  city  is,  so  far  as  quality  of  material  is  concerned, 
not  merely  wrong  side  out,  but  wrong  end  up,  as  well.  The 
best  and  most  enduring  material  in  the  entire  structure  lies  in 
the  inner  courses  of  the  upper  portion.  The  poorest  and 
weakest  is  comprised  in  the  outer  portion  of  the  first  150  feet 
measured  from  the  ground  up,  where  it  has  to  bear  the  weight 


352  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

of  the  entire  superincumbent  300  feet,  and  receives  as  well 
the  wash  from  all  the  rain  which  falls  upon  the  portion 
above. 

The  cracked  and  scaling  fronts  of  brownstone  in  New  York 
and  other  of  our  older  cities  furnish  again  abundant  illustra- 
tions of  lack  of  care  and  judgment  in  the  selection  of  materials, 
while  the  House  of  Parliament  in  London,  which  is  said  to  have 
so  badly  scaled  and  disintegrated  in  certain  portions  as  to 
necessitate  repairing  before  the  structure  was  actually  finished, 
shows  that  such  a  failing  is  by  no  means  confined  to  America. 

Within  the  last  fifty  years  many  more  or  less  complex  series 
of  tests  of  durability  have  been  inaugurated  when  the  erection 
of  public  buildings  have  been  under  consideration,  but  the  sub- 
ject has  as  yet  by  no  means  received  the  attention  it  deserves. 
It  is  for  the  purpose  of  emphasizing  the  necessity  of  care  in 
the  selection  of  such  materials  that  the  chapter  herewith  pre- 
sented has  been  written. 

The  term  weathering,  as  applied  to  stone,  includes  the  series 
of  physical  changes  induced  by  alternations  of  heat  and  cold,  or 
by  friction,  as  well  as  the  more  complex  series  of  chemical 
changes,  such  as  may  be  comprised  under  the  heads  of  oxid- 
ation, deoxidation,  hydration,  and  solution.  Since  a  stone  ex- 
posed in  the  walls  of  a  building  may  be  subjected  to  the  in- 
fluence of  any  one  or  the  combined  influences  of  several  of 
these  agencies,  whereby  serious  consequences,  as  of  discolor- 
ation or  disintegration  may  result,  it  is  important  to  consider 
in  more  or  less  detail,  their  comparative  energies  under  varying 
.conditions  and  upon  the  various  kinds  of  stone  commonly  em- 
ployed for  structural  purposes. 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  353 


(i)  PHYSICAL  AGENCIES. 

Heat  and  cold. — It  is  safe  to  say  that  none  of  the  conditions 
under  which  a  stone  is  commonly  placed  are  more  trying  than 
those  presented  by  the  ordinary  changes  of  temperature  in  a 
climate  like  that  of  our  Northern  and  Eastern  States.  Stones, 
as  a  rule,  possess  but  a  low  conducting  power  and  slight  elas- 
ticity. They  are  aggregates  of  minerals,  more  or  less  closely 
cohering,  each  of  which  possesses  degrees  of  expansion  and  con- 
traction of  its  own.  In  the  crystalline  rocks  these  dissimilar 
elements  are  practically  in  actual  contact ;  in  the  sandstones 
they  are  removed  from  one  another  by  a  slight  space  occupied 
wholly  or  in  a  part  by  a  ferruginous,  calcareous  or  siliceous 
cement.  As  temperatures  rise,  each  and  every  constituent  ex- 
pands more  or  less,  crowding  with  resistless  force  against  its 
neighbor :  as  the  temperatures  decrease  a  corresponding  con- 
traction takes  place.  Since  with  us  the  temperatures  are  ever 
changing,  and  within  a  space  of  even  twenty-four  hours  may 
vary  as  much  as  forty  degrees,  so  within  the  mass  of  the  stone 
there  is  continual  movement  among  its  particles.  Slight  as 
these  movements  may  be  they  can  but  be  conducive  of  one 
result,  a  slow  and  gradual  weakening  and  disintegration. 

This  constant  expansion  and  contraction  is  often  sufficient 
in  amount  to  be  appreciable  in  stone  structures  of  considerable 
size.  Thus  Bunker  Hill  Monument,  a  hollow  granite  obelisk, 
221  feet  high  by  30  feet  square  at  the  base,  swings  from  side  to 
side  with  the  progress  of  the  sun  during  a  sunny  day,  so  that  a 
pendulum  suspended  from  the  centre  of  the  top  describes  an 
irregular  ellipse  nearly  half  an  inch  in  greatest  diameter.* 

Under  such  circumstances  as  these  it  is  not  at  all  strange 

*  Dana,  Manual  of  Geology,  p.  720. 


354  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

that  many  stones  show  a  decided  weakening  and  tendency  to 
disintegration  after  long  exposure,  and  particularly  on  those 
sides  of  buildings  exposed  longest  to  the  sun,  and  which  are, 
therefore,  subject  to  the  full  range  of  temperature  variations. 
Professor  Julien  has  called  attention  to  the  marked  decay  thus 
produced  on  the  western  face  of  the  tombstones  in  Trinity 
church-yard  and  elsewhere.  It  is  stated  further  that  the  ashlar 
base  of  the  steeple  of  the  church  at  Thirty-seventh  Street 
and  Fifth  avenue,  New  York  City,  is  beginning  to  exfoliate 
from  this  cause  on  the  south  side  (where  the  sun  shines  the 
longest)  but  not  on  the  north  and  east.  Other  examples  are 
seen  on  the  stone  stoops  of  the  east  and  west  streets,  where 
the  western  face  of  the  dark-brown  sandstone  is  badly  disinte- 
grated and  exfoliated,  while  the  eastern  face  remains  much 
longer  in  a  perfect  condition.  The  author  has  observed  similar 
effects,  but  in  a  less  marked  degree,  on  the  Smithsonian  build- 
ing, at  Washington,  D.  C.  The  south  and  west  sides  fre- 
quently show  exfoliation,  while  the  north  and  east,  upon 
which  the  sunshines  but  a  small  portion  of  the  day,  r.re  almost 
untouched. 

This  same  expansion  and  contraction  of  stone  sometimes 
produces  disastrous  effects  other  than  those  of  disintegration 
within  its  own  mass. 

The  difficulty  of  obtaining  permanently  tight  joints  even 
with  the  strongest  cements  led  Colonel  Totten  to  institute  a 
series  of  experiments  with  a  view  to  ascertain  the  actual  ex- 
pansion and  contraction  of  granite,  sandstone  and  marble 
when  subjected  to  ordinary  temperatures.  Upwards  of  thirty 
experiments  on  each  of  these  varieties  of  stone  showed  the 
rate  of  expansion  and  contraction,  which  seemed  to  be  uni- 
form throughout  the  range  of  temperatures  employed,  to 
be  for  granite  .000004825  inch  per  foot  each  degree  Fahren- 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  355 

heit :  for  marble  .000005668  inch,  and  for  sandstone,  .000009532 
inch.* 

Supposing,  then,  two  coping  stones  each  five  feet  long  be 
laid  in  midsummer  at  a  temperature  of  96°  Fahr.  In  winter 
the  temperature  falls  to  zero,  a  change  of  96°.  If  the  stones 
contract  toward  their  centres,  the  whole  length  of  stone  put  in 
motion  will  be  five  feet.  In  the  case  of  granite,  then,  the 
shrinkage  amounts  to  .027792  inch,  in  marble  .03264  inch,  and 
in  sandstone  to  .054914  inch.  This  shrinkage,  small  as  it  seems, 
from  necessity  gives  rise  to  cracks  at  the  joints,  which  admit 
the  passage  of  water  ;  continual  shrinkage  and  expansion  must 
in  time  crumble  the  cement  and  leave  the  joint  permanently 
open.f 

The  effects  of  moderate  temperatures  upon  stone  of  ordin- 
ary dryness  are,  however,  slight  when  compared  with  the  de- 
structive energies  of  freezing  temperatures  upon  stones  saturat- 
ed with  moisture.  At  a  temperature  of  30°  Fahr.  the  pres- 
sure exerted  by  water  passing  from  a  liquid  to  a  solid  state 
amounts  to  not  less  than  138  tons  to  the  square  foot,  or  as 
Professor  Geikie  has  strikingly  put  it,  is  equal  to  the  weight  of 
a  column  of  ice  a  mile  high.  It  is  therefore  not  surprising  that 
a  porous  sandstone  exposed  in  a  house-front  to  be  saturated 
by  a  winter's  rain  and  then  subjected  to  temperatures  perhaps 
several  degrees  below  the  freezing  point  shows  signs  of  weak- 
ness and  exfoliation  after  a  single  season's  exposure.  Indeed 
the  injurious  effects  produced  by  the  freezing  of  stone,  and 
particularly  sandstone,  when  freshly  quarried  and  saturated 
with  water,  have  long  been  recognized  by  quarriers,  who  refuse 


*  Adie  found  the  rate  of  expansion  for  granite  to  be  .00000438  inch,  and  for 
white  marble,  .00000613  in. — Transactions  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  xm. 
p.  366. 

f  W.  H.  C.  Bartlett  on  Contraction  and  Expansion  of  Building  Stone, 
American  Journal  of  Science,  vol.  xxn.  1832,  p.  136. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


to  assume  any  risk  from  such  freezing  after  the  stone  is  deliv- 
ered for  shipment.  In  the  northern  and  New  England  States 
quarrying,  as  a  rule,  ceases  on  the  approach  of  the  cold  season, 
owing  in  part  to  the  liability  to  injury  of  the  freshly  quarried 
material,  and  when  expedient  it  is  often  customary  to  flood 
the  quarries  with  water  ;  if  left  unprotected  there  is  always  a 
considerable  loss  of  surface  stone  due  to  its  having  frozen  and 
burst,  or  at  least  become  shaky.  (See  remarks  on  time  of 
quarrying,  p.  383.) 

The  injurious  effects  of  artificial  heat,  such  as  is  produced  by 
a  burning  building,  are,  of  course,  greater  in  proportion  as  the 
temperature  is  higher.  Unfortunately  sufficient  and  reliable 
data  are  not  at  hand  for  estimating  accurately  the  comparative 
enduring  powers  of  various  stones  under  these  trying  circum- 
stances. It  seems,  however,  to  be  well  proven  that  of  all  stones 
granite  is  the  least  fire-proof,  while  the  fact  that  certain  of  the 
fine-grained  siliceous  sandstones  are  used  for  furnace  backings 
would  seem  to  show  that  if  not  absolutely  fire-proof,  they  are 
very  nearly  so.* 

*  Cutting's  experiments  ("Weekly  Underwriter")  showed  that  up  to  the  point 
at  which  they  are  converted  into  quicklime,  limestones  are  less  injured  by  heat 
than  either  granite  or  sandstones  (a  result  not  fully  borne  out  by  the  experi- 
ments of  Winchell,  Geology  of  Minnesota,  vol.  i,  p.  197-201).  According  to 
this  authority  the  heat  resisting  capacity  of  building-stones,  when  water  is  not 
applied,  stands  somewhat  in  the  following  order  :  —  i,  Marble  ;  2,  Limestone  ; 
3,  Sandstone  ;  4,  Granite  ;  5,  Conglomerate.  In  Dr.  Cutting's  own  words, 
"The  limestones  and  marbles  seldom  crack  from  heat  or  water,  but  when  heat 
from  the  outside  is  excessive,  they  slightly  crumble  on  the  outside,  if  water  is 
thrown  on  them.  When  they  are  cooled  without  the  application  of  water,  the 
injury  is  much  less." 

"  The  specimens  tested  stood  fire  well,  as  a  whole,  up  to  the  temperature  of 
heat  necessary  to  convert  them  into  quicklime,  apd  at  such  a  heat,  if  long  con 
tinued,  they  are  changed  so  as  to  slake  off  and  crumble  down.     In  most  cases 
this  heat  is  greater  than  900  degrees  (Fahrenheit),  and  in  some  cases  beyond 
1,000  degrees." 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  357 


It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  sudden  cooling  of 
the  surface  of  a  heated  stone,  caused  by  repeated  dashes  of 
cold  water,  has  often  more  to  do  with  its  disintegration  than 
heat  alone. 

Effects  of  friction. — The  amount  of  actual  wear  to  which 
stones  in  the  walls  of  a  building  are  subjected  is  naturally  but 
slight  in  comparison  with  those  in  the  sills,  steps,  and  walks, 
which  are  subject  to  the  friction  of  feet  and  other  agencies. 
Nevertheless  it  is  sufficient  in  many  cases  to  become  apprecia- 
ble after  the  lapse  of  several  years.  The  striking  effect  pro- 
duced by  wind-blown  sands  in  the  Western  States  and  Terri- 
tories has  often  been  alluded  to*  and  even  in  the  Eastern 
States,  as  at  Cape  Cod,  Massachusetts,  there  may  frequently 
be  seen  window-panes  so  abraded  by  blowing  sand  as  to  be  no 
longer  transparent,  f 

This  same  abrading  process  is  going  on  in  all  city  streets, 
where  the  wind  blows  dust  and  sand  sharply  against  the  faces 
of  the  buildings ;  not  with  sufficient  force,  it  may  be,  to  per- 
ceptibly wear  away  the  fresh  stone,  but  yet  forcibly  enough  to 
crumble  away  the  small  particles  already  loosened  by  atmos- 
pheric decomposition  and  thus  expose  new  surfaces  to  be  acted 
upon.  Professor  Egleston^:  states  that  in  many  of  the  church- 
yards of  New  York  City  the  effects  of  this  abrasive  action 
can  be  seen  where  the  stones  face  in  the  direction  of  the 
prevailing  winds.  In  such  cases  the  stones  are  sometimes 

*  On  the  Grooving  and  Polishing  of  Hard  Rocks  and  Minerals  by  Dry  Sand. 
W.  P.  Blake.  Proceedings  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science,  Providence  meeting. 

f  There  is  on  exhibition  in  the  National  Museum  a  plate  of  glass  formerly  a 
window  in  the  light-house  at  Nauset  Beach,  Massachusetts,  that  was  so  abraded 
by  wind-blown  sand  during  a  storm  of  not  above  forty-eight  hours'  duration  as 
to  be  no  longer  serviceable.  The  grinding  is  as  complete  over  the  entire  sur- 
face as  though  done  by  artificial  means.. 

\  American  Architect,  Septembers,  1885,  p.  13. 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 


worn  very  nearly  smooth  and  are  quite  illegible  from  this  cause 
alone. 

Effects  of  growing  organisms.  —  It  is  in  such  exposed  situa- 
tions as  those  above  mentioned  that  a  stone  is  often  protected 
from  serious  loss  by  a  coating  of  lichens  or  mosses,  which  by 
growing  over  its  surface  shield  it  from  the  abrasive  action. 
The  full  effect  of  growing  organisms  upon  the  surface  of  stones 
is  still,  however,  a  matter  of  dispute.  By  some  authorities  *  it  is 
thought  that  they  give  rise  to  small  amounts  of  organic  acids 
which  exercise  a  corrosive  influence.  By  others  they  are  con- 
sidered as  beneficial,  since  they  protect  the  stone  from  the 
sun's  rays  and  the  rain  and  wind.  It  seems  probable  that  they 
may  exert  either  a  harmful  or  beneficial  action  according  to 
the  kind  of  stone  on  which  they  grow  and  its  environment. 
More  observations  are  necessary  before  anything  definite  can 
be  said.f 

*  See  Winchell,  Geology  of  Minnesota,  vol.  i.  p.  188. 

f  The  vegetation  »f  microscopic  lichens  takes  place  upon  the  surface  of  the 
stone,  when,  from  any  cause,  that  surface  becomes  roughened  so  as  to  afford  a 
lodgment  for  th'  seeds  or  spores  of  these  plants.  These  growing,  still  further 
hasten  the  disintegration  of  the  stone,  and  accumulating  about  them  the  fine 
dust  floated  by  the  atmosphere  becomes  points  for  the  absorption  of  more 
water,  which,  on  freezing,  still  further  roughens  the  surface,  and  the  patch  of 
lichen  gradually  extends.  These  lichens  often  gain  attachment  upon  the  sur- 
face of  a  finely  dressed  stone,  from  some  little  inequality  of  texture,  or  from 
softer  material  that  more  readily  becomes  decomposed  or  more  readily  accom- 
modates the  growth  of  the  plant.  Such  stones  in  time  become  partially  or  en- 
tirely covered  by  lichens,  and  present  an  unsightly  aspect.  The  amount  and 
degree  of  this  growth  varies  with  position  in  reference  to  the  sun  and  with  a 
more  or  less  elevated  situation. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  any  stone  giving  root  to  lichens  is 
not  one  of  those  which  most  easily  disintegrates,  for  in  these  the  destruction 
goes  on  so  rapidly  that  the  surface  does  not  allow  the  growth  of  such  plants. 
The  lichen-covered  rocks  in  nature  are  usually  those  of  great  strength  and  dura- 
bility. None  of  the  softer  or  rapidly  decaying  rocks  produce  this  vegetation. 
(Report  on  Building  Stones  by  James  Hall,  1868,  pp.  54  and  55.) 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 


359 


(2)   CHEMICAL  AGENCIES. 

Composition  of  the  atmosphere. — The  atmosphere  in  its  nor- 
mal state  consists  of  a  mechanical  admixture  of  nitrogen  and 
oxygen  in  about  the  proportions  of  four,  volumes  of  the  former 
to  one  of  the  latter,  together  with  minute  quantities  of  carbonic 
acid,  ammonia,  and  vapor  of  water.  In  the  vicinity  of  large 
manufacturing  cities,  however,  it  carries  in  addition  to  increased 
proportions  of  carbonic  acid,*  appreciable  quantities  of  sulphur- 
ous, sulphuric,  nitric,  and  hydrochloric  acids.f  These,  when 
brought  by  rains  into  contact  with  the  walls  of  buildings,  are 
capable,  throughout  many  years  of  time,  of  producing  marked 
effects,  especially  when  aided  by  the  extreme  diurnal  ranges  of 
temperature  common  in  the  eastern  and  northern  United 
States. 


*  Twenty -one  tests  of  the  air  in  various  parts  of  Boston  during  the  spring  of 
1870  yielded  Mr.  Pearson  385  parts  of  carbonic  acid  in  1,000,000.  Eleven  tests 
of  the  winter  air  at  Cambridge  yielded  Mr.  Hill  337  parts  of  the  acid  in  1,000,000 
(Second  Annual  Report  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health,  1871,  p.  52).  Dr. 
Kidder  found  the  outdoor  air  of  Washington  to  contain  from  387  to  448  parts 
in  1,000,000.  Mr.  Agnus  Smith  (Air  and  Rain,  p.  52),  after  an  elaborate  series 
of  experiments,  reports  the  air  of  Manchester  (England)  to  contain  on  an  aver- 
age 442  parts  of  the  acid  in  1,000,000. 

f  Dr.  Smith  (pp.  cit.)  found  the  proportions  of  these  acids  in  London,  Liver- 
pool and  Manchester  to  be  as  follows : 


Localities. 

Sulphuric. 

Hydrochloric. 

Nitric. 

Grains  per 
gallon. 

Parts  per 

million. 

Grains  per 
gallon. 

Parts  per 
million. 

Grains  per 
gallon. 

Parts  per 
million. 

London  
Liverpool       

1-4345 
2.7714 
2.9163 

20.49 
39-56 
41.66 

.0872 
.  7110 
•4°SS 

1.250 
10.  16 

5-79 

1! 

Manchester 

He  also  found  the  total  acids  for  Manchester  to  average  for  1870  3.7648  grains 
per  gallon.     It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  these  acids  were  not  considered 


360  STONES  FOX    BUILDING   AND   DECORATION. 


Chemical  action  of  the  atmosphere. — The  series  of  changes  in- 
duced by  these  agencies  are,  as  above  indicated,  chemical  in 
their  nature  and  may  all,  as  first  suggested,  be  conveniently 
grouped  under  the  heads  of  oxidation,  deoxidation,  hydration, 
and  solution.  These  may  as  well  be  considered  in  the  order 
given. 

Oxidation. — The  process  of  oxidation  is  commonly  confined 
to  those  stones  which  carry  some  form  of  iron  as  one  of  their 
constituent  parts.  If  the  iron  exists  as  a  sulphide  (pyrite  or 
marcasite),  it  very  probably  combines  with  the  oxygen  of  the 
air  on  exposure,  forming  the  various  oxides  and  carbonates  of 
iron  such  as  are  popularly  known  as  "  rust."  If  the  sulphide 
occurs  scattered  in  small  particles  throughout  a  sandstone  the 
oxide  is  disseminated  more  evenly  through  the  mass  of  the 
rock,  and  aside  from  a  sight  yellowing  or  mellowing  of  the 
color,  as  in  certain  of  the  Ohio  sandstones,  it  does  no  harm. 
Indeed  as  suggested  by  Professor  Winchell,*  it  may  result  in 
positive  good,  by  supplying  a  cement  to  the  individual  grains, 
and  thus  increasing  the  tenacity  of  the  stone.  In  all  other 
than  sandstones,  however,  the  presence  of  a  readily  oxidizable 
sulphide  is  a  serious  defect,  since  crystalline  rocks  require  no 
such  cement,  and  the  change  in  color  can  in  very  few  cases  be 

as  existing  in  the  atmosphere  entirely  in  an  uncombined  state,  but  were  proba- 
bly in  large  part  combined  with  other  substances  to  form  chlorides,  sulphates, 
etc.  L.  P.  Gratacap  (School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  May,  1885,  p.  335),  from  a 
series  of  tests  at  Staten  Island,  New  York,  computed  the  entire  amount  of 
chlorine  brought  down  by  the  rains  during  1884  to  have  been  some  46.23 
pounds  for  each  acre  of  ground.  This  is  regarded  as  in  large  part  combined  with 
sodium  to  form  sodium  chloride  (common  salt).  Egleston  ("Cause  and  decay 
of  Building  Stone,"  p.  5)  estimates  that  the  4, 500,000  tons  of  coal  annually  burnt 
in  New  York  City  discharge  into  the  air  78,750  tons  of  sulphuric  acid.  In  65  cubic 
centimeters  of  rain-water  caught  during  an  exposure  of  forty-one  days,  this 
same  authority  found  4^  milligrams  of  sulphuric  acid. 
*  Geology  of  Minnesota  vol.  i.  p.  189. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  361 

considered  other  than  a  blemish.  This  is  well  illustrated  in 
some  of  the  lower  courses  of  granite  in  the  new  capitol  build- 
ing at  Albany,  New  York,  to  which  reference  has  already  been 
made.  More  than  this,  the  pyrite,  in  decomposing  in  contact 
with  the  gaseous  atmosphere  of  cities,  may  give  rise  to  small 
quantities  of  sulphurous  and  sulphuric  acids,  which  by  their 
corrosive  action  upon  the  various  mineral  constituents  of  the 
stone  may  give  rise  to  efflorescent  magnesian  salts,  besides  ren- 
dering it  porous  and  more  liable  to  the  destructive  effects  of 
frost.  (See  p.  31.)  The  conversion  by  oxidation  of  a  sulphide 
into  a  sulphate  is  moreover  attended  with  an  increase  in  vol- 
ume ;  there  is  thus  brought  to  bear  a  mechanical  agency  to  aid 
in  the  work  of  disintegration. 

Iron  in  the  form  of  ferrous  carbonate  is  a  common  constitu- 
ent of  many  calcareous  rocks,  and  in  the  form  of  this  and  other 
readily  decomposable  protoxide  compounds  occurs  not  infre- 
quently in  the  cementing  material  of  fragmental  rocks  lying 
below  the  water  level.  All  these  compounds  are  susceptible  to 
oxidation  on  exposure  to  atmospheric  influences,  and  to  these, 
more  than  to  the  presence  of  sulphides,  is  presumably  due  the 
mellowing  commonly  observed  in  white  marble  or  the  light 
gray  sub-Carboniferous  sandstones. 

Iron,  in  the  form  of  magnetite — a  mixture  of  the  ferrous 
and  ferric  oxides — is  liable  to  hydration  and  still  further  oxi- 
dation, becoming  converted  wholly  into  the  hydrous  or  anhy- 
drous ferric  oxide.  Thus,  if  abundant,  the  rock  assumes  a 
rusty  hue,  and  perhaps  gradually  falls  away  to  a  coarse  sand, 
as  is  the  case  with  certain  of  our  diabases.* 


*  "  In  one  part  of  the  dikes  that  form  the  Hanging  Hills  at  Meriden,  Con- 
necticut, the  rock  (diabase)  is  quite  black,  and  the  amount  of  iron  (nearly  14  per 
cent  of  magnetite)  has  been  the  cause  of  rapid  disintegration."— Hawes,  Amer- 
ican Journal  of  Science,  vol.  IX.  3d,  1875,  p.  188. 


362  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

Black  mica,  hornblende,  augite,  and  other  silicate  minerals 
rich  in  iron  are  also  liable  on  long  exposure  to  change  through 
the  further  oxidation  of  this  ingredient,  but  when  a  stone  is 
placed  high  and  dry,  as  in  the  walls  of  a  building,  this  change 
must  necessarily  be  so  slow  as  to  be  of  little  moment,  though 
of  the  greatest  importance  from  a  geological  standpoint.  Mr. 
Wolff,  however,  states  *  that  tombstones  of  diabase  in  ceme- 
teries about  Boston  have  in  some  cases  turned  a  rust-brown 
color,  the  change  apparently  occurring  in  the  hornblende  and 
augite.  The  feldspars  of  the  granites  used  in  this  same  city 
were  also  observed  in  many  cases  to  have  become  liver-brown, 
rusty-red,  or  yellow  owing  to  the  higher  oxidation  of  the  iron 
contained  by  them. 

Deoxidation. — The  process  of  deoxidation,  whereby  a  ferric 
is  changed  to  a  ferrous  oxide,  is  possible  generally  only  in  pres- 
ence of  organic  acids  and  continual  moisture.  It  is  likely, 
therefore,  to  affect  only  those  stones  used  for  foundations,  and 
need  not  be  further  considered  here.  The  same  may  be  said 
in  regard  to  hydration,  whereby  an  anhydrous  is  changed  to  a 
hydrous  oxide.  The  blotching  and  variegation  of  beds  of  sand- 
stone, as  those  of  Marquette,  Michigan,  is  due  presumably  to 
the  deoxidation  and  hydration  of  the  iron  oxides  forming  their 
cement,  together  with  a  partial  removal  of  the  same  by  the  aid 
of  organic  acids.  Such  changes  are  possible  only  in  the  quarry 
bed  or  in  moist  foundations  and  bridge  abutments. 

Solution. — The  subject  of  solution  can  not,  however,  be 
passed  over  so  lightly.  Pure  water  alone  is  practically  without 
effect  on  all  stones  used  for  building  purposes.  Rain-water, 
however,  as  already  noted,  may  contain  appreciable  quantities 
of  various  acids  which  greatly  add  to  its  solvent  power,  as  the 
rapijd  destruction  of  certain  classes  of  rocks  only  too  well  at- 

*  Report,  Tenth  Census,  vol.  x. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  363 

tests.  Carbonate  of  lime,  the  material  of  ordinary  marbles 
and  limestones,  is  particularly  susceptible  to  the  solvent  action 
of  these  acids  even  when  they  are  present  in  extremely  minute 
quantities,  and  to  this  agent  is  largely  due  the  rapid  deface- 
ment of  the  marble  tombstones  in  church-yards,  and  the  mar- 
ble-faced buildings  in  cities. 

It  is  to  the  ready  solubility  of  calcium  carbonate  that  is  also 
due  in  large  part  the  poor  weathering  qualities  of  sandstones 
with  calcareous  cements.  The  cement  is  slowly  removed  by 
solution  ;  the  silicious  grains  thus  become  loosened,  and,  falling 
away  under  the  influence  of  wind  and  rain,  expose  fresh  sur- 
faces to  be  acted  upon.  Certain  of  the  ferruginous  cements 
are  likewise  susceptible  to  the  influence  of  the  acidulated  rains, 
though  the  anhydrous  oxides  occurring  in  the  Potsdam  stones 
are  naturally  less  soluble  than  are  the  hydrated  forms  occur- 
ring in  those  of  Triassic  age.  The  feldspars  of  granites  and 
other  rocks  are  also  susceptible  to  the  same  influence,  though 
in  a  much  less  degree.  The  acidulated  rains  aided  by  the  dis- 
integration produced  by  temperature  changes  may  in  time  par- 
tially remove,  in  the  form  of  carbonates,  the  alkalies — potash 
and  soda — and  the  rock  slowly  disintegrates  into  sand  and  clay. 
The  feldspars  of  the  gneiss,  used  so  extensively  in  years  past 
in  and  about  Philadelphia,  are  said  to  have  proved  peculiarly 
liable  to  this  change,  and  it  has  been  found  necessary  in  many 
instances  to  paint  some  of  the  older  structures  formed  from  it 
to  avoid  serious  disintegration. 

(3)   INDURATION    OF    STONE    ON    EXPOSURE. 

The  changes  produced  by  weathering  are  not  in  all  cases 
those  of  decomposition.  All  stones,  and  especially  the  lime- 
stones and  sandstones,  undergo  at  first  a  process  of  hardening 
on  being  removed  from  the  quarry  or  when  exposed  in  the 


364  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

quarry  bed,  as  will  be  noted  further  on.  This  hardening  is 
explained  by  Newberry  and  others  on  the  supposition  that  the 
water  with  which  the  stones  are  permeated,  holds  in  solution, 
or  at  least  in  suspension,  a  small  amount  of  siliceous,  calcare- 
ous, ferruginous  or  clayey  matter.  On  exposure  to  the  atmos 
phere  this  quarry  water,  as  it  is  technically  called,  is  drawn  by 
capillarity  to  the  surface  of  the  block  and  evaporated.  The 
dissolved  or  suspended  material  is  then  deposited,  and  serves 
as  an  additional  cementing  constituent  to  bind  the  grains  more 
closely  together.  It  is  obvious  that  the  amount  of  induration 
must  in  most  cases  be  quite  small,  and  limited  to  but  a  thin 
outer  crust  on  each  block ;  also  that  when  this  crust  has  once 
formed  it  can,  if  removed,  never  be  replaced  since  the  stone  in 
the  walls  of  a  building  is  cut  off  from  further  supply  of  quarry 
water,  and  as  a  matter  of  course,  after  whatever  quantity  con- 
tained within  its  own  mass  has  come  to  the  surface  and  evapor- 
ated, no  further  hardening  by  this  means  can  take  place.* 

It  is  on  this  account  that  the  practice  of  setting  rough 
stone  in  a  wall,  and  leaving  them  to  be  carved  when  the  struct- 
ure is  completed,  is  strongly  condemned  by  some,  f  as  in  so 
doing  the  hard  outer  crust  that  began  to  form  as  soon  as  the 
stone  was  exposed  to  evaporation  is  entirely  removed,  and  the 
delicate  carving  disintegrates  much  more  rapidly  than  other- 
wise would  have  been  the  case.  The  carving,  it  is  argued, 

*  This  induration  sometimes  takes  place  in  a  peculiarly  rapid  and  interest- 
ing manner.  Dr.  Wadsvvorth,  in  writing  on  some  Potsdam  and  St.  Peter's 
sandstones  near  Mazo  Manic,  Wisconsin,  states  that  those  portions  of  the 
stone  which  are  exposed  to  atmospheric  influences  have  become  by  induration 
converted  into  compact  quartzites,  while  the  protected  portions  still  retain  their 
porous  and  friable  nature.  So  rapidly  does  this  change  take  place  that  an  ex- 
posure of  but  a  few  months  is  sufficient  to  produce  very  marked  results  on  a 
freshly  broken  surface. — Proceedings  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  voL 
xxii.  1883,  p.  202. 

f  Le  Due,  "  Story  of  a  House,"  p.  143. 


STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  365 

should  be  done  at  once,  while  the  quarry  water  is  still  present ; 
the  crust  then  forms  upon  its  surface,  and  it  is  thus  better  able 
to  resist  atmospheric  action.  The  rescouring  and  honing  of 
buildings  and  works  of  art  is  strongly  objected  to  on  similar 
grounds.* 


(4)  WEATHERING  PROPERTIES  OF  STONES  OF  VARIOUS  KINDS. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  effects  of  the  various  agencies  just 
enumerated  upon  the  different  classes  of  rocks  in  common  use 
for  building  materials. 

Granites  are  liable  to  disintegration  chiefly  from  the  con- 
stant expansion  and  contraction  caused  by  natural  tempera- 
tures. The  chemical  changes  to  which  they  are  subject,  such 
as  the  kaolinization  of  the  feldspars  or  rusting  of  the  micas, 
being  as  a  rule  scarcely  noticeable  in  the  walls  of  a  building, 
while  they  are  so  compact  as  to  be  practically  non-absorbent 
and  hence  not  liable  to  injury  by  freezing  alone.  The  same 
may  be  said  respecting  the  diabases,  melaphyrs,  and  basalts 
when  not  particularly  rich  in  magnetite  or  secondary  calcite. 
Dr.  Hague,  in  describing  the  decay  of  the  granite  obelisk  in 
Central  Park,  New  York,  says:  "  In  my  opinion  the  process 
of  disintegration  has  been  an  extremely  slow  one,  caused  by  a 
constant  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  constituent  minerals 
near  the  surface,  due  to  diurnal  variations  of  temperature. 
In  a  climate  like  that  of  New  York,  where  these  diurnal  changes 
are  frequently  excessive  at  all  times  of  the  year,  the  tension 
between  the  minerals  would  naturally  tend  to  a  mechanical 
disintegration  of  the  rock.  Granite  being  a  poor  conductor 
of  heat,  the  effect  of  these  changes  would  be  felt  only  at  short 
distances  below  the  surface,  causing  in  time  minute  fractures 

*  See  Chateau,  under  "  Inconvenience  du  grattage  a  vif,"  p.  353. 


366  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

and  fissures  along  lines  of  weakness.  Into  these  openings  per- 
colating waters,  upon  freezing,  would  rapidly  complete  the 
work  of  destruction."* 

Helmerson  explains  the  rapid  disintegration  of  the  Alex- 
ander column  in  St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  on  the  grounds  that 
it  contains  many  large  crystals  of  a  triclinic  feldspar,  which 
when  subjected  to  the  extreme  temperatures  of  Russian 
climate  expand  and  contract  unequally  in  the  direction  of  their 
three  crystallographic  axes  and  hence  cause  the  crumbling. f 
This  view  seems  plausible,  but  we  believe  it  yet  remains  to  be 
shown  that  rocks  rich  in  triclinic  feldspars  in  reality  disintegrate 
more  rapidly  than  others. 

Granite  was  for  a  long  time  popularly  believed  to  be  a 
nearly  fireproof  material.  The  great  fires  of  Portland,  Boston, 
and  Chicago  not  merely  exposed  this  delusion  but  proved  the 
direct  opposite — that  instead  of  being  the  most  fire-proof  it 
was  the  least  so,  ranking  below  either  sand-  or  limestone.  The 
peculiar  susceptibility  of  the  stone  to  the  effect  of  heat  may  be 
ascribed  to  its  compact  and  complex  structure,  each  of  its 
constituent  minerals  possessing  different  degrees  of  expan- 
sibility.^: 

*  Science,  December  11,  1885,  p.  511. 
f  See  Science,  January  22,  1886,  p.  75. 

^  The  co-efficient  of  cubical  expansion  for  several  of  the  more  common  rock- 
forming  minerals  has  been  determined  as  follows  : 

Quartz 000036 


Orthoclase 000017 

Adularia  (feldspar) 0000179 

Hornblende 0000284 

Beryl oooooi 


Tourmaline 000022 

Garnet 000025 

Calcite 00002 

Dolomite ,  . . .       .000035 


The  quartz,  it  will  be  noticed,  has  a  co-efficient  of  expansion  double  that 
of  the  orthoclase,  and  nearly  a  third  greater  than  hornblende.  The  matter  is 
further  complicated  by  the  fact  that  each  individual  mineral  expands  unequally 
along  the  direction  of  its  various  axes.  Thus  quartz  gives  a  co-efficient  of 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  367 

It  has  also  been  suggested  by  certain  authors  that  the 
minute  water-filled  cavities  in  the  quartz  of  these  rock  may  be 
an  important  factor,  since,  when  highly  heated,  the  water  is. 
converted  into  steam  and  an  explosion  results,  causing  the 
quartz  to  fly  into  fragments.  After  microscopic  examination 
of  a  very  large  number  of  our  granites  the  writer  can  but  feel 
that  the  results  thus  produced  are  too  small  to  merit  serious 
consideration. 

The  relative  durability  of  sandstone  and  granite  under  fire 
is  stated  to  have  been  well  shown  not  long  since  at  the  burning 
of  St.  Peter's  Church  at  Lamerton,  England.  The  church 
itself,  which  was  built  in  great  part  of  granite,  was  completely 
ruined,  while  the  tower,  built  of  a  local  freestone,  around  which 
the  heat  of  the  fire  was  so  great  as  to  melt  six  of  the  bells  as 
they  hung  in  the  belfry,  was  left  intact,  although  the  granite 
window-jams  and  sills  were  destroyed.* 

Limestones  and  dolomites,  both  marbles  and  the  common 
varieties,  are  perhaps  less  affected  than  granite  by  the  purely 
mechanical  agencies,  but  make  up  for  this  in  their  susceptibility 
to  the  solvent  ^action  of  gaseous  atmospheres.  Limestones  are 
in  this  respect  less  durable  than  dolomites,  so  that,  the  tenacity 
being  the  same,  a  dolomite  might,  under  the  same  circum- 
stances, be  considered  as  promising  greater  durability  than  a 
limestone  (see  p.  381).  A  thoroughly  crystalline  or  non-crys- 
talline compact  and  homogeneous  limestone  or  dolomite  is 
scarcely,  if  any,  more  absorbent  than  a  granite,  and  hence  it  is 
as  little  liable  to  injury  from  freezing.  Professor  Geikie,  in 

.00000769  parallel  to  the  major  axis,  and  of  .00001385  perpendicular  to  this  axis; 
adularia  gives  .0000156,  .000^000659,  and  .000,00294  for  its  three  axes;  and 
hornblende  for  the  same  axes  gives  .0000081,  .00000084,  and  .0000095.  (See 
Clarke's  "Constants  of  Nature,"  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collection, 
vol.  xiv.) 

*  American  Architect,  vol.  iv.  1878,  p.  80. 


368  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

studying  rock-weathering,  as  displayed  by  the  marble  tomb- 
stones in  Scottish  cemeteries,  observed  that  the  process  pre- 
sented three  distinct  phases,  all  of  which  were  at  times  observ- 
able on  the  same  slab.  These  were  (i)  superficial  solution, 
caused  by  the  carbonic  and  sulphuric  acids  of  the  atmosphere ; 

(2)  internal  disintegration,  accompanied   or  preceded   by  the 
formation  of  an  exterior  coat  or  film  of  sulphate  of  lime  ;  and 

(3)  curvature  and  fracture.     The  first  phase  manifested  itself 
in  loss  of  polish  and  gradual  roughening  of  the  surface,  fol- 
lowed by  the  formation  of  minute  rifts  and  final  rapid  disin- 
tegration.    One  case  is  mentioned  in  which  a  stone  erected  in 
1785  became  so  far  decayed  as  to  require  restoration  in   1803, 
and  at  the  time  of  writing  (1880)  was  and  had  been  for  some 
years  so  corroded  as  to  be  entirely  illegible. 

The  second  phase,  that  of  internal  disintegration,  mani- 
fested itself  in  a  peculiar  manner.  In  a  number  of  cases  exam- 
ined it  was  found  that  the  sulphuric  acid  brought  in  contact 
with  the  stone  by  rains  had  reacted  upon  the  calcium  carbon- 
ate, producing  a  superficial  coating,  varying  in  thickness  from 
that  of  a  sheet  of  paper  to  a  millimeter,  of  sulphate  of  lime. 
This,  so  long  as  it  remained  intact,  seemed  to  protect  the  stone 
from  other  atmospheric  influences.  On  the  breaking  of  the 
crust,  however,  it  was  found  that  the  cohesion  of  the  crystal- 
line granules  beneath  had  been  destroyed  and  the  stone  crum- 
bled rapidly  to  sand,  the  cause  of  which  is  attributed  largely 
to  mechanical  agencies. 

The  third  phase,  that  of  curvature  and  fracture,  was  ob- 
served only  on  thin  slabs  of  marble,  which  had  been  placed  in 
a  horizontal  or  vertical  position  and  confined  by  a  frame  of 
sandstone.  It  manifested  itself  in  the  bulging  outward  of  the 
slab  like  the  bellying  of  a  well-filled  sail.  In  one  case  exam- 
ined, that  of  a  slab  of  marble  305-  inches  long,  22|  inches  wide, 
by  three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick,  which  had  been  thus  secured 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  369 

against  a  wall,  the  slab  was  found  to  have  escaped  from  its 
fastenings  at  the  sides,  though  still  held  at  the  top  and  bottom, 
and  to  have  bulged  outward  sufficiently  to  allow  the  insertion 
of  the  hand  and  arm  between  it  and  the  wall  at  the  widest 
point.  It  had  also  expanded  laterally  so  as  to  be  one-half  an 
inch  wider  in  the  center  than  at  the  ends.  The  outer  surface 
of  the  slab  where  the  greatest  strain  was  produced  by  the  bend- 
ing was  filled  with  minute  cracks  or  rifts,  the  largest  of  which 
were  some  one-tenth  inch  in  diameter.  The  cause  of  the  bulg- 
ing is  believed  by  Professor  Geikie  to  be  due  to  expansion 
caused  by  the  freezing  of  water  absorbed  from  rains.  The 
conclusions  arrived  at  from  the  examination  of  a  large  number 
of  cases,  were  to  the  effect  that  in  all  but  exceptionally  favor- 
able and  sheltered  localities  slabs  of  marble  exposed  to  the 
weather  in  such  a  climate  as  that  of  Edinburgh  lost  their  polish 
after  an  exposure  of  but  a  year  or  two  and  became  entirely 
destroyed  in  less  than  a  century ;  hence  that  the  stone  was 
quite  unfitted  for  outdoor  work  in  that  vicinity.* 

These  results  are  greatly  in  exaggeration  of  what  takes  place 
in  our  own  cemeteries.  Professor  Julien  states  that  in  the  city 
cemeteries  about  New  York  the  polish  on  marble  tombstones 
often  survives  for  ten  years,  and,  in  protected  places,  as  near  the 
ground  in  suburban  cemeteries,  for  half  a  century.  He  further 
states  that  while  of  the  tombstones  in  St.  Paul's  churchyard 
in  New  York  City,  about  one-tenth  of  the  inscriptions  dating 
back  to  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  are  illegible, 
he  has  never  seen  the  same  effect  produced  in  suburban  cem- 
eteries in  the  same  length  of  time.  The  author's  own  obser- 
vations on  the  subject  are  to  the  effect  that  in  the  cemeteries 
of  the  smaller  towns  and  cities  of  New  England  marble  tomb- 
stones will  retain  their  polish  for  a  period  of  ten  or  fifteen  years, 

*  Geological  Sketches,  pp.  170-172. 


37°  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

and  up  to  thirty  or  thirty-five  present  no  sign  of  disintegration 
of  a  very  serious  nature.  Beyond  this  time,  however,  the  sur- 
face becomes  rough  and  granular,  and  the  edges  of  the  stone 
may  be  found  filled  with  fine  rifts  into  which  particles  of  dirt 
become  lodged  or  lichens  take  root,  giving  it  a  dirty  and 
unkempt  appearance.*  Such  stone  are  frequently  taken  down, 
rehoned  and  polished,  and  again  set  up  to  do  duty  for  another 
term  of  years. 

A  closely  crystalline  or  non-crystalline,  compact  and  homo- 
geneous limestone  is  probably  as  little  affected  by  frost  as  are 
the  granites.  Very  many  of  the  limestones  and  dolomites 
used  for  ordinary  building  are,  however,  by  no  means  suf- 
ficiently non-absorbent  to  protect  them  from  injury  by  freezing, 
nor  are  they  sufficiently  uniform  in  texture  to  weather  evenly, 
the  disintegration  going  on  more  rapidly  in  some  layers  than 
others,  thus  producing  rough  and  unsightly  walls.  Professor 
Winchell,  writing  on  the  weathering  of  the  Trenton  limestone 
used  at  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis  says :  f  "  The  stone  itself  has 
an  attractive  and  substantial  aspect  when  dressed  under  the 
hammer,  the  variegations  due  to  the  alternating  shaly  and  limy 
parts  giving  the  face  a  clouded  appearance,  as  of  gray  marble, 
without  being  susceptible  of  a  uniform  polish.  Where  pro- 
tected from  the  weather  the  shale  will  endure  and  act  as  a 
strong  filling  for  the  framework  of  calcareous  matter  for  a  long 
time ;  but  under  the  vicissitudes  of  moisture  and  dryness,  and 
of  freezing  and  thawing,  it  begins  to  crumble  out  in  a  few 
years.  This  result  is  visible  in  some  of  the  older  buildings, 
both  in  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis."  Professor  Hall,  writing 
on  rock  weathering,^  says :  "  In  the  gray  or  bluish-gray  sub- 

*  The  fine-grained  saccharoidal  marbles,  used  for  statuary  are  even  less 
durable,  and  in  extreme  cases  have  shown  serious  disintegration  at  the  end  of 
three  or  four  years'  exposure. 

f  Preliminary  Report  on  Building-stones,  etc.,  1880,  p.  13. 

$  Report  on  Building-stones,  p.  36. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  371 

crystalline  limestones  the  argillaceous  matter,  instead  of  being 
distributed  throughout  the  mass,  is  usually  present  in  the  form 
of  seams  which  are  parallel  to  the  lines  of  bedding  or  distrib- 
uted in  short,  interrupted  laminae.  These  seams,  whether  con- 
tinuous or  otherwise,  are  fatal  to  the  integrity  of  the  stone, 
and  there  is  scarcely  a  limestone  structure  in  the  country,  of 
twenty-five  years  standing  which  is  not  more  or  less  dilapi- 
dated or  unsightly,  from  the  effects  of  absorption  of  water  by 
the  clay  seams,  and  the  alternate  freezing  and  thawing.  When 
laid  in  the  position  of  the  original  beds,  which  is  the  usual 
mode,  the  separation  by  the  clay  seam  is  slower ;  but  when 
used  as  posts  or  pillars,  with  the  lines  of  bedding  vertical,  the 
change  goes  on  more  rapidly." 

Sandstones,  on  account  of  their  widely  varying  textures  and 
degrees  of  compactness,  together  with  an  equal  variation  in 
composition  and  character  of  cementing  materials,  are  influ- 
enced, to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  by  all  the  atmospheric  influ- 
ences enumerated.  In  the  order  of  its  apparent  importance 
may  be  mentioned  first  the  effects  of  freezing.  As  will  be  no- 
ticed by  reference  to  the  tables  in  the  appendix,  sandstones 
will  absorb  from  about  one-fiftieth  to  one-eighth  of  their  weight 
in  water  in  twenty- four  hours,  or  from  2  per  cent  to  I2J-  per 
cent.  The  approximate  amount  which  a  stone  may  absorb  with 
impunity  cannot,  of  course,  he  stated,  since  much  depends  on 
its  position  in  a  building  and  the  strength  and  structure  of  the 
stone  itself.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say,  however,  that  any 
stone  which  will  absorb  10  per  cent  of  its  weight  of  water  dur- 
ing twenty-four  hours  should  be  looked  upon  with  suspicion 
until,  by  actual  experiment,  it  had  shown  itself  capable,  of 
withstanding,  without  harm,  freezing  when  in  this  condition. 
Half  of  this  amount  may  be  considered  as  too  large  when  the 
stone  contains  any  appreciable  amount  of  calcareous  or  clayey 
matter.  (See  p.  387,  also  foot-note  on  p.  379.) 


372  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

It  is  to  their  great  absorptive  power  that  is  due  the  large 
amount  of  disintegration  and  exfoliation  seen  in  the  softer 
sandstones,  as  the  Triassic  of  the  eastern  United  States  and 
the  sub-Carboniferous  of  Ohio.  When  a  stratified  rock,  and 
especially  one  that  is  distinctly  laminated,  is  placed  on  edge 
the  water  filters  into  it  from  above,  and,  there  freezing,  from 
necessity  produces  the  scaling  so  often  noted  in  the  Connecti- 
cut brownstones.  If  placed  on  the  bed  the  effect  is  not  nearly 
as  disastrous,  but  with  a  porous  stone  the  effect  of  continual 
freezing  and  thawing  can  but  be  injurious.  It  was  with  an 
apparent  entire  disregard  of  the  probable  effect  of  these  agen- 
cies that  was  selected  the  soft  and  porous  Juro-Cretaceous 
sandstone  from  Acquia  Creek,  Virginia,  for  the  construction  of 
the  White  House,  central  part  of  the  Capitol,  and  other  public 
and  private  buildings  in  Washington,  a  stone  so  susceptible  to 
these  influences,  that  it  is  only  by  a  most  prodigal  use  of  paint 
and  putty  that  the  buildings  are  kept  in  a  condition  at  all 
presentable.'55' 

Acid  gases  are  naturally  without  effect  upon  the  silicious 
particles  of  a  sandstone,  and  can  be  productive  of  injury  only 
in  dissolving  out  the  ferruginous  and  calcareous  cements. 
This  is  actually  accomplished  in  many  cases,  and  much  disin- 
tegration results  as  a  consequence.  Indeed,  Egleston  *  seems 

*  Other  reasons  than  that  of  lack  of  durability  can  be  given  against  the  use 
of  a  too  porous  stone  in  a  house  wall.  "  A  red  sandstone  house  may  be  a  very 
handsome  building,  but  then  it  may  be  holding  tons  of  water,  and  such  a  wall, 
if  exposed  to  the  north-west,  in  an  open  country,  in  our  neighborhood,  in  a  rainy 
winter,  would,  no  doubt,  get  saturated.  This  means  expending  more  fuel  to 
convert  part  of  this  water  into  vapor.  The  difficulty  is  surmounted  to  a  great 
extent  by  building  hollow  walls,  the  inner  wall  being  of  brick.  Woe  unto  the 
man  who  has  not  taken  this  precaution."  (T.  Mellard  Reade,  in  Proceedings 
Liverpool  Geological  Society,  p.  445  and  446,  i883-'84.) 

f  Cause  and  Prevention  of  Decay  in  Building-stone. — Transactions  American 
Society  Civil  Engineers,  xv.  1886. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  373 

to  regard  the  serious  decay  into  which  the  stone  of  Trinity 
Church,  New  York,  has  fallen,  to  be  due  chiefly  to  this  cause, 
supplemented  by  the  action  of  frost  after  the  cement  had  been 
removed  and  the  stone  thus  rendered  porous.  The  relative 
solubility  of  the  various  ferruginous  cements  has  been  always 
alluded  to  (ante,  p.  363).  Oxidation  is  likely  to  play  a  more 
noticeable  part  in  sandstones  than  in  most  other  rocks,  owing 
to  their  porous  nature,  which  allows  ready  access  of  water  and 
air.  The  effects  of  oxidizing  pyrite  and  ferrous  carbonates  in 
producing  the  .mellowing  and  other  color  changes  in  stones  of 
this  class  is  sufficiently  dwelt  upon  elsewhere,  as  is  also  the 
effect  of  heat,  both  natural  and  artificial. 

On  account  of  their  porosity  and  natural  roughness  of  sur- 
face sandstones  are  of  all  stones  most  likely  to  afford  foothold 
for  the  growth  of  algae,  lichens,  and  mosses.  While  it  is  yet  to 
be  proved  that  these  are  actually  injurious,  they  are  at  least 
suggestive  of  an  unhealthy  dampness.  A  stone  once  covered 
by  these  organisms  will  absorb  more  water  and  give  it  up  more 
slowly  to  evaporation  than  one  whose  surfaces  are  not  thus 
protected. 

Serpentines  when  free  from  bad  veins  are  as  a  rule  non-ab- 
sorptive and  not  affected  by  gaseous  atmospheres,  hence  are 
durable  if  free  from  bad  joints.  The  Pennsylvania  serpentines 
sometimes  fade  or  turn  whitish  on  exposure,  but  so  far  as  ob- 
served do  not  disintegrate. 

Soapstone,  although  too  soft  and  possibly  too  slippery  for 
general  building,  is  nevertheless  one  of  the  most  durable  stones, 
being  not  only  proof  against  atmospheric  and  chemical  agen- 
cies, but  when  well  seasoned  fire-proof  as  well. 

Gypsum  is  too  soft  and  too  soluble  in  ordinary  terrestrial 
waters  to  be  of  great  value. 


374  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


ON  THE  SELECTION   AND  TESTING  OF  BUILDING  STONE, 

(l)  GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

From  what  has  gone  before  it  must  be  evident  that  there 
are  many  more  factors  which  go  to  determine  the  value  of 
stone  for  structural  purposes  than  are  ordinarily  taken  into 
consideration.  It  may  therefore  not  be  out  of  place  here  to 
mention  a  few  general  principles  to  be  observed  in  selecting 
stone  for  any  purpose  in  which  durability,  or  stability  of  color 
are  matters  of  importance.  It  should  be  stated  at  the  outset 
that  the  problem  of  ascertaining  by  laboratory  or  other  tests 
the  actual  qualities,  good  or  bad,  of  any  stone,  is  peculiarly 
complicated  and  difficult.*  In  the  present  state  of  our  knowl- 
edge nothing  like  definite  rules  of  procedure  with  any  proba- 
bility of  accurate  and  reliable  results  can  be  given.  That  the 
difficulties  may  be  better  appreciated  it  may  be  well  to  note 
here  the  main  points  to  be  considered.  In  the  order  of  their 
apparent  importance  they  are  : 

(1)  Resistance  to  changes  in  temperature. 

(2)  Resistance  to  chemical  action  of  the  atmosphere. 

(3)  Crushing  strength  and  elasticity. 

(4)  Resistance  to  abrasive  action  of  feet  and  wind-blown 
sand. 

The  order  as  above  given  may  be  subject  to  modification 
to  suit  individual  cases.  In  many  instances  the  actual  strength 
of  a  stone  is  a  matter  of  little  importance,  and  in  protected  sit- 
uations the  quality  mentioned  under  (4)  maybe  left  wholly  out 
of  consideration.  In  still  other  cases,  as  in  bridge  abutments, 

*  See  article  "  On  the  Testing  of  Building-stone,"  by  the  writer,  in  American 
Architect  for  Februar}   16,  1889. 


S7VNES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  375 

strength  and  elasticity  are  matters  of  greatest  import,  while 
that  of  change  of  color  can  have  no  essential  value.  In  the 
arrangement  given  above,  especial  regard  has  been  had  to  stone 
exposed  in  the  exterior  walls  of  a  building,  and  in  a  varied 
climate  like  that  of  the  northern  and  eastern  United  States. 

The  first  item  for  consideration  is  then  the  matter  of  cli- 
mate. This,  together  with  the  location  in  which  a  structure  is 
to  be  erected,  with  especial  reference  to  proximity  to  large 
cities  and  manufacturing  establishments,  and  even  the  direc- 
tions of  the  prevailing  winds  and  storms,  are  of  primary  im- 
portance and  need  consideration  as  well  as  do  the  physical  and 
chemical  properties  of  the  stone  itself.* 

Our  Northern  and  Eastern  States,  with  an  annual  precipi- 
tation of  some  thirty-nine  or  forty  inches  and  a  variation  in 
temperature  amounting  in  some  cases  to  not  less  than  120°,  are 
necessarily  more  trying  than  those  where  the  precipitation  is 
less  or  the  temperature  more  uniform.  There  is  many  a  por- 
ous sand-  or  limestone  which  could  endure  an  exposure  of  hun- 
dreds of  years  in  a  climate  like  that  of  Florida  or  New  Mexico, 

*  "  As  an  instance  of  the  difference  in  degree  of  durability  in  the  same  ma- 
terial subject  to  the  effects  of  atmosphere  in  town  and  country  we  may  notice 
the  several  frustra  of  columns  and  other  blocks  of  stone  that  were  quarried  at 
the  time  of  the  erection  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in  London,  and  which  are  now 
lying  in  the  island  of  Portland,  near  the  quarries  from  where  they  were  ob- 
tained. These  blocks  are  invariably  found  to  be  covered  with  lichens,  and  al- 
though they  have  been  exposed  to  the  vicissitudes  of  a  marine  atmosphere  for 
more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  they  still  exhibit  beneath  the  lichens  their 
original  forms,  even  to  the  marks  of  the  chisel  employed  upon  them,  whilst  the 
stone  which  was  taken  from  the  same  quarries  and  placed  in  the  cathedral  itself 
is  in  those  parts  xvhich  are  exposed  to  the  south  and  south-east  winds  found  in 
some  instances  to  be  fast  moldering  away."  (Gwylt's  Encyclopaedia,  of  Archi- 
tecture p.  458.) 

It  is  stated  that  in  England  the  northern  part  of  a  building  is  always  in  a 
better  state  of  preservation  than  the  southern,  owing  to  the  more  uniform  amount 
of  moisture  and  less  heat  from  the  sun. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


but  which  would  probably  be  found  in  a  sad  state  of  disinte- 
gration at  the  end  of  a  single  season  in  some  more  northern 
State. 

We  are  accustomed  to  hear  a  great  deal  regarding  the  wis- 
dom of  the  ancients,  and  especially  the  Egyptians,  as  shown  in 
the  selection  of  enduring  materials  for  their  obelisks  and  monu- 
ments,* a  wisdom  or  prudence  which  modern  builders  "admire 
more  than  they  imitate,"  and  we  are  referred  to  the  still  legible 
inscriptions  and  sharp  sculptures  on  the  surfaces  of  these 
obelisks,  even  after  thousands  of  years  of  exposure,  as  proof  of 
this  marvellous  foresight  on  the  part  of  a  semi-barbarous  people. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  nature  herself  had 
vastly  more  to  do  in  this  matter  than  Egyptian  foresight,  and 
it  is  more  than  probable  that  at  that  time  materials  were  select- 
ed with  as  little  knowledge  of  their  lasting  qualities  as  they 
are  to-day.  The  Syene  granite,  so  durable  under  Egyptian 
skies,  is  no  better  than  those  in  common  use  in  this  country, 
as  the  transported  obelisks  in  New  York  and  London  have 
plainly  shown.  It  is  a  matter  of  climate  more  than  of  mate- 
rial, and  this  fact  should  never  for  a  moment  be  ignored. 
Were  the  climate  of  the  United  States  like  that  of  Egypt, 
southern  Italy,  or  Mexico  there  would  have  arisen  no  occasion 
for  the  compilation  of  this  chapter.f 


*  Vide  "  Materiaux  de  Construction,"  par  L.^ftlal&LQt,  p.  30. 

f  "  From  the  manner  in  which  the  buildings  and  monuments  of  Italy,  formed 
Of  calcareous  materials,  have  retained  to  a  wonderful  degree  the  sharpness 
of  their  original  sculpturing,  unless  disfigured  by  the  hand  of  man,  it  is  clear 
that  a  dry  and  smokeless  atmosphere  is  the  essential  element  of  durability.  In 
this  respect,  therefore,  the  humid  sky  and  gaseous  atmosphere  of  British  towns 
must  always  place  the  buildings  of  this  country  at  a  comparative  disadvantage 
as  regards  durability."  (Hull,  p.  282.) 

"  La  Grece,  la  Basse-Italic,  et  notamment  la  Sicile,  dit  il,  ont  cet  etrange 
privilege  que  tout  s'y  conserve  intact,  presque  sans  se  deteriorer,  pendant  des 
siecles  consecutifs.  Aussi  les  monuments,  les  statues,  les  marbres  blancs  eux- 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  3/7 


(2)   PRECAUTIONS   TO   BE  OBSERVED. 

The  precautions  which  should  be  observed  in  selecting  a 
stone  for  building  purposes  may  here  be  briefly  noted. 

In  those  portions  of  the  northern  and  eastern  United  States 
that  have  been  subjected  to  glacial  action,*  and  where  the 
great  mass  of  rotten  rock  that  had  accumulated  during  previous 
geologic  ages  has  been  entirely  removed,  if  the  surface  of  the 
rock  as  displayed  in  the  quarry  or  natural  outcrops  presents  a 
fresh  and  undecomposed  appearance,  this  may  be  construed  as 
a  strong  argument  in  its  favor,  though  it  can  not  in  all  cases 
be  accepted  as  conclusive.f  A  purely  calcareous  rock  may 

memes,  qui,  chez  nous  (en  France),  deviennent  noirs  en  deux  ans,  rouges  en  dix 
ans,  ruines  en  cinquante,  chez  eux  sont  a  peine  noircis  au  bout  de  trois  ou  qua- 
tre  siecles  d'exposition  en  plein  air.  Sous  terre  oudans  un  appartement  ils  gar- 
dent  intactes  leur  forme  et  jusqu'aleur  blancheur,  £  perpetuite  pour  ainsi  dire. 

"  J'ai  vu  retirer  de  terre  a  Pouzzoles,  pres  de  Naples,  des  marbres  enfouis  de- 
puis  plus  de  deux  mille  ans,  qui  avaient  1'air  de  sortir  des  mains  du  sculpteur. 

"  A  Palerme,  les  statues  et  les  marbres  en  plein  air  sont,  il  est  vrai,  assez 
noirs;  mais  ils  n'ont  jamais  ete  touches,  m'a-t-on  dit,  depuis  leur  mise  en  place, 
et  il  y  a  la  des  statues  qui  datent  de  dix  siecles."  (E.  Carrey,  as  quoted  in 
Malecot's  Materiaux  de  Construction,  p.  31.) 

*  This  includes  all  of  New  England  and  those  portions  of  other  States  lying 
north  of  a  line  running  irregularly  from  a  point  near  the  western  end  of  Long 
Island  across  New  Jersey  ;  thence  northwesterly  across  Pennsylvania  into  New 
York  State  south  of  Buffalo  ;  thence  southwesterly  to  near  central  Ohio  ;  thence 
due  south  nearly  to  the  Ohio  River  ;  westerly  along  the  river  to  a  point  north  of 
Louisville,  Kentucky  ;  thence  northerly  again  nearly  to  Indianapolis,  Indiana  ; 
thence  southwesterly  so  as  to  include  nearly  all  of  Illinois  ;  thence  northwesterly 
to  a  point  near  St.  Louis  ;  westerly  toward  Jefferson  City,  Missouri  ;  thence 
along  the  Osage  River  and  northwesterly  through  Kansas  near  Topeka  ; 
through  the  eastern  half  of  Nebraska,  through  Dakota  west  of  Bismark,  and 
thence  onward  into  Montana. 

f  "  No  artificial  structure  or  position  will  ever  subject  the  stone  to  the  same 
degree  of  weathering  influence  to  which  it  is  exposed  in  its  natural  position. 
.  .  .  The  rock  which  has  withstood  these  influences  is  quite  equal  to  withstand 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


weather  rapidly  and  yet  leave  no  debris,  since  its  constituents 
are  soluble  and  may  all  be  carried  away  by  running  water, 
leaving  no  traces  to  tell  of  the  havoc  going  steadily  on.  Im- 
pure limestones  and  all  silicious  rocks,  however,  leave  more  or 
less  debris  as  mark  of  their  decay. 

But  in  regions  south  of  the  glaciated  area  the  rock  is  still 
covered  by  the  decomposed  mass,  and  hence  no  clew  can  thus 
be  obtained.  In  such  cases  one  can  only  have  recourse  to 
structures  that  have  already  been  erected  from  the  stone  in 
question  and  there  observe  its  weathering  qualities,  or,  if  these 
are  lacking,  observe  the  stone  in  those  parts  of  the  quarry  that 
have  not  recently  been  worked.  In  opening  a  new  quarry, 
blocks  should  always  be  tested  by  allowing  them  to  lie  and 
season  for  at  least  a  year  before  using.  At  the  end  of  this  time 
the  presence  of  any  readily  oxidizable  sulphide  or  carbonate 
will  have  made  its  presence  known,  and  the  amount  of  disinte- 
gration, or  induration,  as  the  case  may  be,  will  furnish  a  slight 
clew  regarding  its  future  behavior.  Indeed,  this  seasoning  of 
stone  prior  to  its  introduction  into  a  building  should  always  be 
insisted  upon,  whatever  its  character.  A  good  building  stone, 
whatever  its  kind,  should  possess  a  moderately  fine  and  even 
texture,  with  the  grains  well  compacted,  should  give  out  a  clear 
ringing  sound  when  struck  with  a  hammer*  and  show  always  a 
clean,  fresh  fracture.  It  should  also  be  capable  of  absorbing 
only  a  proportionally  small  amount  of  water.f 


the  exposure  of  a  few  centuries  in  an  artificial  structure."  (Hall,  Report  on 
Building  Stone,  p.  24.) 

*  In  a  report  on  some  experiments  on  the  transverse  strength  and  elastic- 
ity of  building  stone,  Mr.  T.  H.  Johnson  states  "  the  resonance  of  each  piece 
tested  was  proportional  to  the  modulus  of  elasticity  as  found  by  the  test." 
(Report  State  Geologist  of  Indiana,  1881,  p.  38.) 

f  En  un  mot,  les  qualites  essentielles  des  pierres  tant  dures  que  tendres  sont 
d'avoir  le  grain  fin  et  homogene,  la  texture  uniforme  et  compacte  ;  de  resister 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  3/9 

The  porosity  of  any  stone  is  usually  characteristically  shown 
by  its  manner  of  drying  after  a  rain  ;  some  will  dry  quickly, 
while  others  that  have  absorbed  a  larger  quantity  of  water  will 
remain  moist  for  a  long  time.  In  the  case  of  a  sandstone  it 
may  be  said  that  the  grains  should  be  closely  compacted,  so 
that  the  proportion  of  cement  necessary  to  entirely  fill  the  in- 
terspaces is  comparatively  small.  Of  all  cementing  materials 
the  argillaceous  and  calcareous  are  the  least  durable,  and  the 
purely  silicious  the  most  so,  the  ferruginous  cements  standing 
intermediate  in  the  series.  Indeed  a  purely  silicious  sandstone 
cemented  closely  by  a  silicious  cement  may  be  classed  as  one 
of  the  most  durable  of  stones,  although  unfortunately  on  ac- 
count of  their  hardness  and  poor  colors  such  can  be  utilized 
only  at  a  considerable  expense  and  not  always  with  good  effect. 
Professor  Geikie*  mentions  an  instance  in  which  a  fine  silicious 
sandstone  erected  as  a  tombstone  in  Greyfriars  church-yard 
about  1646,  and  defaced  by  order  of  the  Government  in  1662, 
still  showed  the  marks  of  the  defacing  chisel  upon  its  polished 
surface  after  a  lapse  of  over  two  hundred  years. 


(3)  COMPARATIVE  DURABILITY  OF  STONES  OF  VARIOUS  KINDS. 

In  this  connection  the  following  table  upon  the  "  life  "  of 
various  kinds  of  building  stone  in  New  York  City  is  of  inter- 
est ;  by  the  term  life  being  understood  the  number  of  years 

d  1'humidite  a  la  gelee,  et  de  ne  pas  elater  au  feu  en  cas  d'incendie.  (Chateau, 
vol.  i.  p.  272.) 

"Any  sandstone  weighing  less  than  130  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  absorbing  more 
than  5  per  cent  of  its  weight  of  water  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  effervescing 
anything  but  feebly  with  acids,  is  liable  to  prove  a  second-class  stone  as  regards 
durability  where  there  is  frost  or  much  acid  in  the  air."  (Notes  on  Building 
Construction,  p.  36.) 

*  Geological  Sketches,  p.  175. 


380  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


that  the  stones  have  been  found  to  last  without   discoloration 
or  disintegration  to  the  extent  of  necessitating  repairs.* 

Life  in  years. 

Coarse  brown-stone , 5  to    15    /  ^ 

Fine  laminated  brown-stone 20         50     a 

Compact  brown-stone 100  200     j> 

Blue-stone  (sandstone),  untried,  probably  centuries. 

Nova  Scotia  sandstone,  untried,  perhaps 50  200     ^ 

Ohio  sandstone  (best  silicious  variety),  perhaps  from  one  to 

many  centuries.  I- 

Coarse  fossiliferous  limestone 20        40      i{> 

Fine  oolitic  (French)  limestone 30        40       f 

Marble,  coarse  dolomitic  40       // 

Marble,  fine  dolomitic 60         80 

Marble,  fine , 50  100          fa 

Granite....   75  200        ^ 

Gneiss,  50  years  to  many  centuries. 

The  fact  that  certain  quarries  have  furnished  good  material 
in  the  past  is  no  guarantee  of  the  future  output  of  the  entire 
quarry.  This  is  especially  true  regarding  rocks  of  sedimentary 
origin,  as  the  sand  and  limestones,  different  beds  of  which  will 
often  vary  widely  in  color,  texture,  composition,  and  durability, 
though  lying  closely  adjacent.  In  many  quarries  of  calcareous 
rocks  in  Ohio,  Iowa,  and  neighboring  States,  the  product  is 
found  to  vary  at  different  depths  all  the  way  from  a  pure  lime- 
stone to  magnesian  limestone  and  dolomite.  The  cause  of  this 
remarkable  variation  is  little  understood  and  can  not  here  be 
touched  upon,  but  the  fact  that  such  occurs  is  of  importance, 
since  in  many  and  perhaps  the  majority  of  cases  an  equal  varia- 
tion exists  in  point  of  durability.  By  English  as  well  as  many 
other  authorities  a  dolomite  is,  other  things  being  equal,  con- 
sidered more  durable  than  a  limestone,  and  beyond  doubt  this 
is  the  case  in  localities  where  the  atmosphere  is  at  all  acidic, 

*  Report  Tenth  Census,  1880,  vol.  x.  p.  391. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  381 

since  dolomite,  as  already  noted,  is  but  little  affected  by  these 
agencies.  Aside  from  this  it  would  seem  yet  to  be  proven 
that,  in  the  United  States,  a  pure  limestone  was  less  durable 
than  one  that  contained  the  necessary  magnesia  to  constitute  a 
true  dolomite.  *  Indeed,  Professor  Hall  considers  the  magne- 
sian  limestones,  as  a  whole,  "  more  friable,  more  porous,  and 
less  firm  "  (and  consequently  less  durable)  than  the  pure  lime- 
stones, f 

Stones  which  are  mixtures  of  limestone  (or  calcite)  and 
dolomite  are  liable  to  weather  unevenly,  the  calcite  crystals 
becoming  eaten  out,  while  the  dolomite  particles  are  left  to 
project  and  impart  a  rough  and  lusterless  surface. 

Coarsely  fossiliferous  stones  are  usually  to  be  avoided  for 
exposed  work,  as  they  weather  unevenly,  owing  to  the  unequal 
hardness  of  the  fossils  and  the  matrix  in  which  they  are  em-" 
bedded.  \  Thus  the  coarse  gray  Niagara  limestone  from  Lock- 
port,  New  York,  used  in  the  construction  of  the  Lenox  Library 
building  in  New  York  City,  began  to  show  signs  of  decay  even 

*  "  The  nearer  a  magnesian  limestone  approaches  a  dolomite  in  composition 
the  more  durable  it  is  likely  to  be."  "  In  the  formation  of  dolomite  some  pecu- 
liar combination  takes  place  between  the  molecules  of  each  substance;  they 
possess  some  inherent  power  by  which  the  invisible  or  minutest  particles  inter- 
mix and  unite  with  one  another  so  intimately  as  to  be  inseparable  by  mechani- 
cal means.  On  examining  with  a  high  magnifying  power  a  specimen  of  gen- 
uine magnesian  limestone  ...  it  will  be  found  not  composed  of  two  sorts 
of  crystals,  some  formed  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  others  of  carbonate  of  mag- 
nesia, but  the  entire  mass  of  stone  is  made  up  of  rhomboids,  each  of  which  con- 
tains both  earths  homogeneously  crystallized  together.  When  this  is  the  case 
we  know  by  practical  observation  that  the  stone  is  extremely  durable."  (Smith's 
Lithology,  Building  Construction,  p.  40.) 

f  Report  on  Building-stone,  p.  40. 

\  The  limestone  of  which  was  constructed  the  State  capitol  building  at  Nash- 
ville, Tennessee,  has  proved  so  inferior,  owing  to  the  weathering  out  of  the 
numerous  fossil  orthocera,  that  the  quarries  have  been  discontinued  on  this 
account  alone. 


382  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

before  the  structure  was  completed.  It  should  be  remarked, 
however,  that  this  extreme  rate  was  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that 
the  stone  was  laid  on  edge  and  not  on  the  natural  bed.  Mr. 
Wolff*  mentions  the  case  of  a  monument  of  shell  marble  in  a 
Boston  cemetery,  in  which,  after  seventy  years'  exposure,  the 
fossil  shells  stand  out  in  bold  relief ;  the  stone  is  also  covered 
with  fine  cracks  and  is  otherwise  decomposed. 

Veined  stones  are  also  subject  to  unequal  weathering  when 
exposed  ;  this  being  due  to  the  unequal  hardness  of  the  vein 
matter  and  the  mass  of  the  rock.  This  is  true  of  all  stones,  but 
is  especially  noticeable  in  the  so-called  verdantique  marbles, 
where  the  white  veins  of  calcite  or  dolomite  lose  their  polish 
and  crumble  away  more  rapidly  than  the  serpentine  composing 
the  bulk  of  the  rock.  Good  examples  of  this  are  to  be  seen  in 
the  bases  of  the  two  statues  in  front  of  the  City  Hall  in 
Boston.  Stones  which,  like  many  marbles,  contain  seams  of 
mica,  talc,  or  other  minerals,  are  objectionable  for  like  reasons. 
Thus  the  marble  column  supporting  the  statue  of  Lincoln  in 
front  of  the  City  Hall  at  Washington,  though  having  been  in 
place  but  some,  twenty  years,  is  to-day  cracked  from  top  to 
bottom,  owing  to  the  opening  of  one  of  these  seams  of  talc.  It 
may  be  stated  further  that  in  the  majority  of  marbles  and  such 
other  stones  as  are  used  chiefly  for  decorative  work,  those 
variously  colored  lines  and  veins  or  structural  features  which 
give  the  stone  its  chief  beauty  are  in  reality  flaws  and  lines  of 
weakness.  There  is  many  a  beautiful  imported  marble  which 
when  sawn  into  a  thin  slab  will  scarcely  bear  its  own  weight, 
but  must  be  backed  by  cheaper  and  stronger  material. 

It  may  be  said  here  that  the  essential  qualities  of  a  marble, 
aside  from  color,  which  may  vary  almost  indefinitely,  are  that 
it  shall  possess  a  texture  sufficiently  compact  and  hard  to  take 

*  Report  Tenth  Census,  vol.  x.  p.  290. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  383 

a  smooth  surface  and  acquire  a  high  polish.  The  chief  defect  in 
nearly  all  American  marbles,  and  one  that  does  not  as  yet  seem 
to  be  fully  realized,  is  that  they  are  too  coarsely  crystalline. 
This  not  only  renders  the  production  of  a  perfect  surface  diffi- 
cult, but  the  cleavage  facets  frequently  reflect  the  light  from 
below  the  surface  in  such  a  way  as  to  destroy  its  uniformity. 
However  good  the  color  may  be,  a  stone  of  this  nature  must 
always  rank  lower  than  one  that  is  so  fine  grained  as  to  appear 
non-crystalline  or  amorphous.  It  is  this  fact,  and  this  alone, 
that  renders  the  American  marbles  now  in  the  market  inferior 
to  such  as  are  imported  from  Belgium,  the  French  Pyrenees, 
Italy,  or  northern  Africa.  Those  who  are  seeking  new  sources 
of  material  will  do  well  to  bear  this  in  mind.* 

Time  of  quarrying. — The  season  of  year  during  which  a 
stone  was  quarried  may  also,  in  certain  cases,  be  worthy  of 
note.  It  is  well  known  that  many  stones  can  be  quarried  with 
safety  only  during  the  summer  season,  but  Griiber  goes  a  step 
further  and  states  f  that  while  the  best  time  for  quarrying  is 
during  the  summer,  the  freshly  quarried  material  should  not  be 
allowed  to  lie  in  the  sun  and  dry  too  quickly,  as  it  is  liable 
thereby  to  become  shaky.  This  he  regards  as  particularly  likely 
to  happen  to  sandstone.  Stone  quarried  in  winter,  or  during 
very  wet  seasons,  is  liable,  according  to  this  authority,  to  have 
but  slight  tenacity  when  dried,  and  to  remain  always  particu- 
larly susceptible  to  the  effects  of  moisture.  Finally,  he  states, 
a  stone  is  liable  to  disintegration  if  built  immediately  into  a 
wall  without  seasoning.  Stones  for  carved  work  are  to  be 
quarried  in  the  spring,  since  such  longest  retain  their  quarry 
water,  and  this,  if  once  lost,  no  subsequent  wetting  can  restore. 

*  Stone,  Indianapolis,  Indiana,  February,  1889. 
f  Die  Baumaterialien-Lehre,  p.  61. 


384  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


(4)    THE  TESTING   OF   BUILDING   STONE. 

The  present  methods  of  testing  building  stone  are  at  best 
extremely  unsatisfactory  and  the  results  obtained  very  unre- 
liable. In  the  majority  of  the  cases,  indeed,  no  attempt  is 
made  to  ascertain  the  resistance  of  the  material  to  the  action 
of  fire,  frost,  or  the  general  effects  of  weathering.  This  is  due 
in  part  (i)  to  a  lack  of  knowledge  of  methods  by  which  such 
tests  can  be  made,  (2)  to  a  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  necessity 
of  such  tests,  (3)  to  a  desire  on  the  part  of  quarriers  to  get  the 
stone  immediately  upon  the  market  without  the  delay  necessi- 
tated by  a  long  series  of  experiments,  (4)  to  the  expenses  at- 
tendant upon  such  experiments,  and  (5)  in  altogether  too  many 
cases  to  a  desire  on  the  part  of  interested  parties  to  sell  the 
stone  regardless  of  its  qualities.  Even  the  tests  that  are  now 
applied  are  in  many  cases  practically  valueless,  owing  to  a  lack 
of  definiteness  in  stating  results,  or  our  inability  with  our 
present  knowledge  to  interpret  them  properly.  Take  for  in- 
stance the  chemical  analysis  of  a  sandstone  as  ordinarily  given. 
This  shows  the  presence  of  certain  percentages  of  iron  oxides, 
alumina,  lime,  and  silica,  but  we  have  no  means  of  knowing  in 
just  what  conditions  these  substances  exist  ;  whether  the  iron 
occurs  as  a  hydrous  or  anhydrous  oxide,  is  confined  wholly  to 
the  cementing  material,  or  is  a  constituent  of  the  various  min- 
erals composing  the  stone  itself.  The  same  may  be  said  re- 
garding at  least  a  part  of  the  silica,  alumina,  and  lime.  These 
difficulties  may  be  in  part  avoided  if  the  analysis  is  supple- 
mented by  a  microscopic  examination,  whereby  is  ascertained 
the  mineralogical  nature  of  the  stone,  its  structure,  and  the  free- 
dom from  decomposition  of  its  constituent  parts.  And  indeed 
as  a  rule  it  may  be  said  that  while  the  analysis  of  any  stone  is 
of  interest  in  a  general  way,  it  fails  completely  to  give  more 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  385 

than  an  approximate  idea  of  its  value  for  constructive  pur- 
poses. Any  analysis  should  always  be  preceded  by  a  micro- 
scopic examination,  and  if  the  results  of  such  examination 
should  show  it  to  be  essential  this  should  be  followed  by  pul- 
verization and  mechanical  separation  of  the  mineral  constitu- 
ents, which  may  in  their  turn  be  in  part  or  wholly  subjected  to 
analysis. 

Strength  and  ratio  of  absorption. — The  test  of  compressive 
strength  is  at  the  present  time  the  principal  test  to  which  a 
stone  is  put  to  ascertain  its  adaptability  to  any  particular  kind 
of  structural  application.  The  value  of  the  results  are,  it  seems 
to  the  author,  greatly  overestimated.  It  is  a  rule  among  build- 
ers to  never  place  a  stone  where  it  will  be  subject  to  more 
than  one-tenth  the  pressure  it  has  shown  itself  by  actual  ex- 
periment capable  of  bearing.  Even  under  these  circumstances 
there  is  scarcely  a  stone  in  the  market  that  would  not  be  found 
when  freshly  quarried  strong  enough  for  all  ordinary  purposes 
of  construction.  The  problem  is  not  what  will  a  selected  and 
carefully  prepared  sample  of  the  stone  bear  to-day,  but  what 
will  it  bear  after  many  seasons'  exposure  to  heat  and  frost. 
For  all  ordinary  purposes  of  construction  the  excess  of  strength 
of  any  stone  over  15,000  pounds  per  square  inch  is  of  little  value 
excepting  so  far  as  it  denotes  density,  and  hence  greater  resist- 
ance to  atmospheric  influences. 

The  size  of  the  cubes  tested  and  the  methods  used  in  their 
preparation  are  matters  that  need  consideration  in  making 
comparisons  of  results  in  any  series  of  experiments.  General 
Gillmore  found*  that  within  certain  limits  "  the  compressive 
resistance  of  cubes  per  square  inch  of  surface  under  pressure 
increases  in  the  ratio  of  the  cube  roots  of  the  sides  of  the 


*  Report  on  compressive  strength,  etc. ,  of  building  stone,  Annual  Report 
Chief  of  Engineers,  1875. 


386  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

respective  cubes,  expressed  in  inches."  Thus  a  series  of  cubes 
varying  in  size  from  one-fourth  inch  to  4  inches  square  were 
found  to  give  results  varying  from  4,992  pounds  to  11,720 
pounds  per  square  inch  of  surface.  It  naturally  follows  that 
ambitious  dealers  desiring  any  stone  to  show  great  power  of 
resistance  would  select  the  larger  sized  cubes  to  be  experi- 
mented upon.*  That  the  method  of  preparing  a  cube  to  be 
experimented  upon  is  of  moment  will  become  apparent  when 
we  consider  that  in  the  process  of  dressing  a  small  sample  by 
hammer  and  chisel  it  becomes  filled  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
with  small  fractures  and  hence  will  break  under  less  strain 
than  if  carefully  sawn  out  and  ground  down  to  a  smooth  and 
even  surface. 

Since,  as  every  quarryman  knows,  no  stone,  however  strong, 
can  endure  the  enormous  strain  to  which  it  would  be  subject 
if  frozen  solid  when  holding  any  considerable  amount  of  water 
confined  within  its  pores,  it  is  but  natural  to  conclude,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  that  other  things  being  equal  those  stones 
are  most  durable  which  will  absorb  and  retain  the  least  moist- 
ure.f 

This  rule  is  not  to  be  accepted,  however,  without  a  consid- 
able  grain  of  allowance,  since  a  coarsely  porous  stone,  though 
capable  of  taking  up  a  large  amount  of  moisture  will  also  part 
with  it  readily,  or  if  frozen  while  saturated  will  permit  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  the  expansive  force  of  the  solidifying 


*  See  further,  Gillmore's  remarks  under  "  Compressive  Resistance  of  Various- 
sized  Cubes,"  on  pp.  20-29  of  his  Notes  on  the  Compressive  Resistance  of  Free- 
stone, Brick  Piers,  Hydraulic  Cements,  Mortars  and  Concretes.  (Wiley  & 
Sons,  1888).  The  law  as  above  given  does  not  appear  to  hold  good  for  blocks 
of  large  size,  such  as  are  used  in  actual  building. 

f  "  Other  things  being  equal,  it  may  probably  be  said  that  the  value  of  a 
stone  for  building  purposes  is  inversely  as  its  porosity  or  absorbing  power." 
(Hunt,  "Chemical  and  Geological  Essays,"  p.  164.) 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  387 

water  to  be  expended  otherwise  than  in  pushing  apart  the 
grains  composing  it.  Otherwise  expressed,  the  water  will  freeze 
out  of  a  coarsely  porous  stone,  while  in  one  that  is  compact  it 
may  create  sad  havoc.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  common 
occurrence  of  water  freezing  in  straight  cylindrical  or  widely- 
expanding  vessels,  and  in  narrow-necked  pitchers  and  bottles. 
In  the  first  instance  the  open  space  above  is  sufficient  to  allow 
all  the  expansion  to  take  place  vertically.  The  narrow-necked 
vessel,  on  the  other  hand,  is  almost  invariably  broken. 

To  ascertain  the  porosity  or  ratio  of  absorption  of  any 
stone  is  nevertheless  an  important  test :  To  ascertain  the  ratio 
of  absorption  and  resistance  to  freezing  while  saturated  is  a 
most  important,  and  for  a  single  test  the  most  conclusive  of 
any  one  test  yet  suggested.  Nevertheless  it  is  one  which  is  at 
present  almost  wholly  ignored.  I  will  refer  to  methods  which 
have  been  employed  to  some  extent  in  times  past. 

Obviously  the  best  method  of  ascertaining  the  power  of  a 
stone  to  withstand  the  effects  of  frost  is  to  actually  expose  pre- 
pared blocks  to  such  a  temperature,  when  saturated  with  water, 
as  to  freeze  them  solid  and  then  note  the  amount  of  disinte- 
gration, or  loss  in  strength.  Unfortunately  this  can  not  at  all 
times  of  the  year  and  in  all  places  be  done,  and  artificial  meth- 
ods must  be  resorted  to.  Brard's  process,  as  modified  by  M. 
Hericart  and  Thury,  consisted  in  boiling  the  cube  to  be  exper- 
imented upon  for  half  an  hour  in  a  saturated  solution  of  sul- 
phate of  soda  (Glauber  salt)  and  then  allowing  it  to  dry,  when 
the  salt  taken  into  the  pores  crystallized  and  expanded  in  a 
manner  supposedly  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  water  when 
freezing.  * 

This  process  is  not  now  in  general  use,  as  experiment  has 
shown  that  the  salt  exercised  a  chemical  as  well  as  mechanical 

*  Chateau,  Technologic  Du  Bailment,  vol.  i.  p.  262. 


388 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


action,  and  produces  results  somewhat  at  variance  with  that  of 
freezing  water.  The  most  important  series  of  experiments 
ever  performed  with  the  process  in  this  country  were  those  of 
Mr.  C.  G.  Page,  made  with  reference  to  the  selection  of  material 
for  the  Smithsonian  Institution  building  at  Washington. 
The  results  are  given  in  the  following  table :  * 


MATERIALS. 


Marble,  close-grained,  Maryland 

Marble,  coarse  "  alum  stone,"  Baltimore  County,  Maryland. 

Marble,  blue,  Maryland 

Sandstone,  coarse,  Portland,  Connecticut 

Sandstone,  fine,  Portland,  Connecticut 

Sandstone,  red,  Seneca  Creek,  Maryland 

Sandstone,  dove-colored,  Seneca  Creek,  Maryland 

Sandstone,  Little  Falls,  New  Jersey 

Sandstone,  Little  Falls,  New  Jersey 

Sandstone,  coarse,  Nova  Scotia , 

Sandstone,  dark,  coarse,  Seneca  Aqueduct,  Peters's  quarry 

Sandstone,  Acquia  Creek,  Virginia 

Sandstone,  4  miles  above  Peters's  quarry,  Maryland 

Sandstone,  Beaver  Dam  quarry,  Maryland 

Granite,  Port  Deposit,  Maryland 

Marble,  close-grained,  Montgomery  County,  Pennsylvania. 

Limestone,  blue,  Montgomery  Coun  ty,  Pennsylvania 

Granite,  Great  Falls  of  the  Potomac  River,  Maryland 

Soft  brick 

Hard  brick 

Marble,  coarse  dolomite,  Mount  Pleasant,  New  York 


Specific 
gravity. 


2.834 
2,857 
2.613 


2.583 
2.672 
2.486 


2.482 
2.518 

2.230 


2.609 
2.727 
2.699 


2. 211 
2.294 
2.860 


Loss  in 
grains. 


0.19 
0.50 

0.34 

14.36 

24-93 
0.70 
1.78 
1.58 
0.62 
2.16 
5.60 

18.60 
1.58 
1.72 
5.05 
0-35 
0.28 

0.35 

16.46 

1.07 

0.91 


The  specimens  operated  upon,  it  should  be  stated,  were  cut 
in  the  form  of  inch  cubes.  Each  was  immersed  for  half  an 
hour  in  the  boiling  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda,  and  then  hung 
up  to  dry,  this  performance  being  repeated  daily  throughout 
the  four  weeks  which  the  experiment  lasted. 

Although  as  above  noted  this  process  is  practically  aban- 
doned, the  series  of  tests  given  was  productive  of  certain 


From  Hints  on  Public  Architecture,  by  Robert  Dale  Owen,  p.  119. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  389 

results  which  are  well  worth  a  moment's  consideration.  Thus 
the  red  sandstone  from  Seneca  Creek,  Maryland,  with  a  spe- 
cific gravity  of  2.672,  or  a  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  167  pounds, 
lost  by  disintegration  but  0.70  grains.  This  was  the  stone  ulti- 
mately selected  for  the  Smithsonian  Institution  building,  and 
the  structure  as  a  whole  is  to-day  probably  in  as  good  a  state 
of  preservation  as  any  of  its  age  in  the  United  States.  The 
second  stone,  from  Acquia  Creek,  Virginia,  with  a  specific 
gravity  of  2.23,  or  a  weight  per  cubic  foot,  of  but  139.37 
pounds,  and  which  lost  18.6  grains  is  the  one  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  White  House,  and  the  old  portions  of  the 
the  Capitol,  Interior  Department  and  Treasury  buildings.  This 
stone  has  proven  so  poor  and  disintegrates  so  badly  that  the 
buildings  are  kept  in  a  condition  anywise  presentable  only  by 
repeated  applications  of  paint  and  putty.  The  results  obtained 
with  hard  and  soft  brick  are  also  very  striking :  the  one  weigh- 
ing at  the  rate  of  138  pounds  per  cubic  foot  losing  16.46 
grains,  while  the  harder  brick,  weighing  at  the  rate  of  143 
pounds,  lost  but  1.07  grains.  If  anything  can  be  learned  from 
the  series^  it  is,  that  with  substances  having  the  same  compo- 
sition, those  which  are  the  most  dense — which  are  the  heaviest, 
bulk  for  bulk — will  prove  the  more  durable.  The  results 
obtained  on  coarse  and  fine  varieties  of  Portland  sandstone, 
suggest  at  least,  that  water  would  freeze  out  of  the  coarser 
stone,  and  therefore  create  less  havoc  than  in  that  of  finer 
grain,  a  probability  to  which  I  have  already  referred.  That, 
however,  the  ratio,  of  absorption  cannot  in  all  cases  be  con- 
sidered the  controlling  item  is  shown  in  the  case  of  the  coarse 
''alum  marble"  from  Baltimore  County.  This  stone  is  act- 
ually so  poor  as  to  be  no  longer  in  general  use,  yet  in  the  test 
it  lost  but  0.50  grains,  less  than  did  the  durable  Seneca  stone. 
It  is  probable  that  the  difference  in  durability  here  lies  in  the 
solubility  of  the  marble  in  the  water  of  rainfalls,  together  with 


390 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


a  mechanical  disintegration  produced  by  temperature  changes 
on  a  rock  so  coarsely  crystalline.  These  agencies  have  been 
referred  to  elsewhere. 

The  specific  gravity  or  density  of  stone  having  been  con- 
sidered by  many  as  sufficiently  indicative  of  their  strength  to 
be  authoritative,  the  series  of  tests  given  below  were  made  by 
Dr.  Bohme.  The  results  obtained  seem  to  show  that  while 
with  limestones  this  might  be  true,  with  sandstones  such  tests 
could  not  be  relied  upon.  A  moment's  reflection  will  be 
sufficient  to  show  us  the  cause  of  this,  since  the  strength  of 
any  stone,  which  is  but  an  aggregate  of  minerals,  is  necessarily 
dependent  not  upon  the  hardness,  density,  or  toughness  of  the 
individual  minerals  themselves,  but  upon  the  tenacity  with 
which  the  adhere  to  one  another.  (See  ante,  p,  38.) 

(a)  Limestone  with  a  specific  gravity  0/~2.68. 


Five  wet 
samples. 


Five  dry 
samples. 


Lowest  strength   7,154.16  7,267.95 

Highest  strength 9,984.54  10,581.91 

(b)  Limestone  with  a  specific  gravity  of  2."]O. 

Eleven  wet  Eleven  dry 

samples.  samples. 

Lowest  strength 8,050.22  8,050.22 

Highest  strength ,...     10,738.36  12.515.80 

(c)  Limestone  with  a  specific  gravity  0f2.ji. 

Six  wet  Six  dry 

samples.  samples. 

Lowest  strength , 7,196.83  7,879.54 

Highest  strength 12,316.72  13,668.60 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  39 1 


(a)  Limestone  with  a  specific  gravity  0/2.72. 


Five  wet 
samples. 


Five  dry 
samples. 


Lowest  strength 9,073.27  9,600.50 

Highest  strength t i5,O33-7 1  14,934- 1 5 

(e)  Sandstone  with  a  specific  gravity  of  2.54. 

Wet  sam-  Dry  sam- 
ples, pies. 

No.  I 12,487.40  13,668.60 

No.  2 15,488.80  14,607.02 

(f)  Sandstone  with  a  specific  gravity  0/2.56. 

Wet  sam-  Dry  sam- 
ples, pies. 

No.  I 10,169.44  9,700.10 

No.  2 18,518.24  18,902.37 

Sandstone  with  a  specific  gravity  of  2.59. 

Wet  sam-  Dry  sam- 
ples, pies, 

No.  i....   8,932.04          9,700.10 

No.  2 11,051.27  11,349.56 

No.  3 17,224.45  16,754.40 


See  American  Architect,  November  4,  1882. 


By  the  term  modulus  of  elasticity  is  understood  the  amount 
of  force  in  pounds  requisite  to  stretch  a  bar  of  any  material 
I  inch  square  to  twice  its  original  length,  provided  the  rate  of 
stretch  could  continue  uniform  throughout  the  trial  without 
the  breaking  of  the  material.  The  modulus  of 'rupture  is  the 
force  requisite  to  break  a  similar  bar  I  inch  square  resting 


392 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


upon  supports  I  inch  apart,  the  load  being  applied  in  the 
middle. 

So  far  as  the  writer  has  been  able  to  learn,  but  few  tests  of 
this  nature  have  been  made  upon  stone.  The  following  are 
from  the  report  of  Mr.  T.  H.  Johnson.* 

It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  a  strong  discrepancy  in  favor 
of  sawn  over  tool-dressed  stone. 


Kind  of  stone. 

Modulus  of 
rupture. 

Modulus  of 
elasticity. 

Crushing 
strength. 

Oolite  limestones,  Indiana,  tool  dressed*.  . 
Oolite  limestones    Indiana    sawnf          .... 

1,477 

2  ^^8 

2,679,475 
4  889  480 

7,357 
12  67^ 

Granite,  Hallovvell,  Maine,  tool  dressed  \  .  . 

1>754i 

2,511,800 

470 

an8   2^4. 

2,82^ 

6  300,000 

l6  SI2 

*  Average  of  twelve  determinations, 
f  Average  of  four  determinations, 
j  Average  of  two  determinations. 


Average  of  five  determinations. 
Average  of  four  determinations. 


As  to  the  method  of  testing : 

Assume  first  that  the  stone  is  designed  for  use  in  the  ex- 
terior walls  of  a  building,  subjected  to  all  the  vicissitudes  of 
our  northern  climate,  and  to  only  such  conditions  of  pressure 
and  strain  as  may  exist  in  any  large  buildings. 

All  things  considered,  it  seems  best  that  the  tests  be  made 
on  two-inch  cubes.  These  should  be  prepared  by  sawing  and 
grinding,  never  by  hammer  and  chisel.  After  'drying  at  a 
temperature  not  exceeding  that  of  boiling  water,  the  ratio  of 
absorption  should  be  determined  by  complete  immersion  for  a 
period  of  not  less  than  twenty-four  hours.  The  cubes  should 
then  be  repeatedly  frozen  and  thawed  while  in  this  saturated 
condition,  and  the  amount  of  disintegration  ascertained  by 
careful  weighings.  If  the  stone  is  a  fragmental  one  (sand- 
stone), and  it  is  found  to  suffer  appreciable  disintegration 


*  Report  State  Geologist  of  Indiana,  1881,  p.  45. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  393 

by  freezing,  it  may  be  well  to  ascertain  the  loss  in  strength 
also.  This  can  be  done  by  crushing  these  same  cubes  after  the 
freezing  tests,  and  also  freshly  prepared  cubes  of  the  same 
material  not  otherwise  tested.  The  freezing  can  be  brought 
about  by  means  of  such  apparatus  as  is  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  artificial  ice  or  as  Chauvenet  has  done,  by  placing  the 
saturated  cubes  in  the  centre  of  a  large  box  which  is  then 
placed  in  a  mixture  of  pounded  ice  and  salt.* 

The  question  of  durability  of  color  and  resistance  to  atmos- 
pheric action,  can,  in  the  laboratory,  be  settled  only  by 
chemical  and  microscopic  tests.  The  condition  of  the  iron, 
whether  in  the  form  of  sulphide  or  protoxide  carbonates  is  the 
main  question  to  be  considered.  A  little  may  perhaps  be 
learned  by  submitting  the  stone  to  the  action  of  artificial  atmos- 
pheres, samples  being  suspended  for  a  period  of  several  weeks 
under  bell-glasses  charged  with  acid  fumes.  The  resistance  to 
the  action  of  carbonic  acid,  can  perhaps  be  best  determined  as 
Professor  Winchell  has  donef  by  placing  the  samples  in  a  basin 
of  water  through  which  carbonic  acid  gas  is  kept  constantly 
bubbling.  This  test  is  scarcely  necessary,  except  upon  cal- 
careous rocks,  or  fragmental  rocks  with  ferruginous  or 
calcareous  cements.  The  determination  of  the  modulus  of 
elasticity  as  made  by  processes  now  in  vogue,  is  apparently 
sufficiently  accurate.  When  as  sometimes  happens,  it  is 
desirous  to  ascertain  the  relative  powers  of  resistance  to  wear, 
as  in  pavements,  or  from  wind-blown  sand,  this  can  readily  be 
done  by  means  of  a  carefully  regulated  sand-blast,  such  as  is 
used  in  the  Tilghman  process  of  stone-carving.  This  property 
might  almost  equally  well  be  learned  by  observing  the  manner 


*  Second    Biennial    Report    Board   of   Capitol    Managers  to  the   General 
Assembly  of  Colorado,  1886. 

f  Geology  of  Minnesota.  Final  Report,  vol.  i. 


394  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

in  which  the  stone  works  under  the  chisel.  Pressure  tests 
when  necessary  at  all,  may  be  made  on  the  two  inch  cubes 
prepared  as  above,  and  crushed  between  steel  plates,  as  in  any 
of  the  leading  testing  machines. 

After  all  that  has  been  said  and  written,  there  are  no  tests 
or  series  of  tests  equal  to  an  examination  of  the  stone  in  its 
natural  outcrops,  or  in  structures  of  long-standing.  How- 
ever careful,  elaborate  and  apparently  exhaustive  may  be  a 
series  of  tests  in  the  laboratory,  they  should  always  be  supple- 
mented, when  possible  by  such  field  examinations.  Indeed  if 
the  writer  were  called  upon  to-day  to  decide  a  question  of  this 
kind,  upon  any  but  the  purely  calcareous  rocks,  and  was  re- 
stricted to  either  field  examinations  or  laboratory  tests,  he 
unhesitatingly  declares  that,  with  good  natural  outcrops,  or 
quarry  openings  of  long  standing,  he  would  choose  the  field 
examination,  no  matter  how  elaborate  the  other  tests  might 
be. 

A  very  essential  item  in  this  connection,  is  that  all  the  tests 
be  made  under  the  direct  supervision  of  one  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  mineral  and  chemical  character  of  the 
rocks,  their  structure,  origin,  mode  of  occurrence,  and  character- 
istic manner  of  weathering.  A  purely  theoretical  knowledge 
is  worse  than  valueless,  and  only  one  who  has  devoted  much 
time  to  the  work,  both  in  the  laboratory  and  in  the  field,  can 
hope  to  deal  with  the  matter  successfully.  One  great  difficulty 
with  all  such  work,  is  that  we  are  prone  to  expect  too  much, 
to  obtain  immediately  results  which,  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
events,  can  be  brought  about  only  by  months  and  perhaps 
years  of  careful  observation,  experiment  and  study. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  395 


METHODS   OF  PROTECTION   AND   PRESERVATION, 
(l)   PRECAUTIONARY    METHODS. 

Position  in  wall. — All  authorities  agree  that  stratified  stone 
should  be  placed  in  the  walls  with  the  bedding  horizontal,  or 
at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  greatest  pressure.  Not  only 
are  they  as  a  rule  strongest  in  this  position,  but  as  they  will 
absorb  less  water  they  are  correspondingly  less  liable  to 
suffer  from  the  effects  of  frost.  This  fact  has  already  been 
sufficiently  dwelt  upon.  The  denser  and  harder  stones  should 
as  a  rule  be  used  in  the  lower  courses;  the  lighter  ones  in  the 
superstructure.  The  non-absorbent  stones  should  be  used  in 
the  ground  and  in  plinths,  sills,  strings,  courses,  and  weather 
beds  of  cornices,  etc.;  the  softer  and  more  absorbent  ones  may 
be  used  for  plain  walling.* 

The  necessity  of  laying  non-absorbent  stones  in  the  ground 
becomes  apparent  when  we  consider  that  in  this  position  they 
are  in  contact  with  more  or  less  moisture,  which,  when  ab- 
sorbed, is  liable  to  cause  discoloration,  and  damp,  unhealthy 
walls.  If  from  necessity  porous  stone  are  used,  a  coating  of 
water-proof  material,  as  asphalt,  should  be  interposed  between 
those  courses  that  are  in  contact  with  the  ground  and  those  of 
the  superstructure/)- 

In  laying  the  lower  courses  of  Lee  dolomite  in  the  walls  of 

*  Cyclopedia  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  vol.  vn.  p.  839. 

f  T.  Egleston,  American  Architect,  Sept.  5,  1885.  This  authority  states 
further,  that  in  the  exterior  walls  of  Trinity  Church,  New  York,  the  stone  for 
the  first  60  or  70  feet  in  height  is  more  decomposed  than  above  this  point. 
This  is  in  part  accounted  for  on  the  supposition  that  the  atmosphere  near  the 
ground  contains  a  larger  proportion  of  acid  gases  than  at  higher  altitudes. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 


the  Capitol  at  Washington,  the  stone  was  observed  to  show  a 
brownish  discoloration,  due  to  the  absorption  of  .unclean  water 
from  the  mortar.  This  difficulty  was  finally  remedied  by 
coating  the  lower  surfaces  of  the  stones  where  they  came  in 
contact  with  the  mortar  with  a  thin  layer  of  asphalt  which 
prevented  such  absorption.* 

No  one  who  has  given  the  subject  any  attention  can  have 
failed  to  remark  how,  in  town  and  city  houses  constructed  of 
the  Connecticut  or  New  Jersey  brown  sandstones,  the  blocks 
in  the  lower  courses  —  those  in  close  proximity  to  the  sidewalks 
—  almost  invariably  scale  after  an  exposure  of  but  a  few  years, 
while  those  in  the  courses  above  remain  intact  for  a  much 
longer  period.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  these  lower  courses 
are  kept  almost  constantly  wet,  receiving  not  only  the  water 
that  falls  as  rain  upon  the  walls  above,  but  also  that  which 
splashes  from  the  walk  or  is  absorbed  from  the  ground.  As 
noted  by  Chateau,f  it  is  not  those  portions  of  a  wall  that 
receive  the  water  from  rains  direct  that  are  most  and  earliest 
liable  to  decomposition,  but  the  under  and  partially  protected 
portions,  as  those  under  the  cornices,  the  entablatures  and  the 
tablettes  of  balustrades  upon  which  the  water  drips  or  runs 
more  slowly.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  architects  advocate  the 
under-throating  of  window  sills  and  other  projections  in  order 
that  the  water  may  be  thrown  off  from  the  building  and  not 
allowed  to  run  down  over  the  face  of  the  stone  beneath.  The 
disastrous  effects  from  neglect  of  this  proceeding  have  been 
dwelt  upon  by  Julien  in  reference  to  buildings  in  New  York 
City.  The  author  has  in  mind  the  costly  residence  of  a  former 
Cabinet  minister  in  Washington  in  which  the  middle  portion 
of  the  brownstone  entablatures  are  almost  continually  wet 

*  Silliman's  Journal,  xxn.  1856,  p.  36. 
f  Op.  cit.,  p.  ii. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION.  397 

throughout  the  winter  months  by  the  soaking  through  of  water 
from  above.  The  stone  steps  in  the  same  house  are  constantly 
wet  and  show  a  whitish  efflorescence.  Both  these  defects  are 
liable  to  appear  in  so  porous  a  material,  but  might  in  large 
part  have  been  averted  by  exercising  proper  care  in  building. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  comment  on  the  folly  of 
placing  iron  railing  on  steps,  platforms,  etc.,  of  finely  finished 
granite,  since  in  spite  of  paint  and  other  means  of  protection 
the  iron  invariably  rusts,  staining  and  badly  defacing  the  entire 
surface  beyond  possibility  of  repair. 

The  method  of  dressing  a  stone  has  an  important  bearing 
upon  its  durability.  As  a  rule  it  may  be  set  down  that  the  less 
jar  from  heavy  pounding  the  surface  is  subjected  to  the  better ; 
this  for  the  reason  that  the  constant  impact  of  the  blows  tend 
to  destroy  the  adhesive  or  cohesive  power  of  the  grains,  and 
thus  renders  the  stone  more  susceptible  to  atmospheric  in- 
fluences. It  is  stated  by  Mr.  Batchen  that  some  of  the  dolo- 
mites used  in  Chicago,  although  apparently  perfectly  sound 
when  quarried,  shortly  showed  a  tendency  to  scale  on  expo- 
sure. On  examination  it  appears  that,  in  dressing,  these  surfaces 
were  both  ax-  and  bush-hammered,  the  implements  used  weigh- 
ing from  8  to  12  pounds,  and  capable  of  striking  blows  of  not 
less  than  150  or  200  pouads.  The  effect  of  these  heavy  blows 
was  to  "stun"*  the  surfaces  for  the  depth  of  from  one-six- 
teenth to  one-eighth,  or  even  one-fourth,  of  an  inch,  and  on  ex- 
posure scaling  resulted,  leaving  them  ragged  and  unsightly. 
Sawn  surfaces  of  the  same  stone,  on  the  contrary,  do  not 
usually  show  the  slightest  tendency  to  scale. 

Results  such  as  these  are  what  one  is  naturally  led  to  ex- 
pect, but  further  experiments  are  necessary  before  it  will 
answer  to  speak  too  positively  regarding  the  merits  or  demerits 

*  I.e.,  to  break  the  grains  and  produce  minute  fissures. 


39$  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND  DECORATION. 

of  various  kinds  of  finish.  With  compact  crystalline  rocks  like 
the  granites  and  diabases  it  would  seem  probable  that  rock- 
faced  work,  untouched  by  chisel  or  hammer,  would  prove  most 
durable,  since  the  crystalline  facets  thus  exposed  are  best  fitted 
to  shed  moisture  and  the  natural  adhesiqji  of  the  grains  has 
not  been  disturbed.* 

With  the  softer  and  more  absorbent  stones  on  the  other 
hand,  the  rock  surface  from  its  irregularity  and  roughness  is 
more  susceptible  to  the  attacks  of  moisture  and  atmospheric 
acids,  and  hence  would  probably  be  found  less  durable,  al- 
though from  its  roughness  at  the  start  any  disintegration  is  less 
noticeable  than  on  finely-finished  work.  With  such  stones  a 
smoothly-sawn  or  polished  surface  seems  best  adapted  to  our 
variable  climate,  f 

*  The  single  experiment  of  Pfaff ,  in  which  a  polished  granite  was  found  to 
weather  more  rapidly  than  one  unpolished,  seems  too  anomalous  to  be  accepted 
until  further  proof  is  offered.  A  polished  surface  must  naturally  shed  water 
more  readily  than  a  sawn  or  tool-dressed  one,  and  hence  it  would  seem  that  it 
should  be  more  durable.  It  is  of  course  possible  that,  owing  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  smooth  surface  necessary  for  polishing  was  produced,  the  surface 
minerals  were  badly  shattered,  and  hence  succumbed  the  more  readily  on  expo- 
sure. 

f  "  Professor  Hall,  writing  on  the  methods  of  dressing  certain  argillaceous 
limestones  (Report  on  Building  Stones,  p.  36,  37),says  :  "  In  the  dressing  of  lime- 
stone the  tool  crushes  the  stone  to  a  certain  depth,  and  leaves  the  surface  with 
an  interrupted  layer  of  a  lighter  color,  in  which  the  cohesion  of  the  particles  has 
been  partially  or  entirely  destroyed  ;  and  in  this  condition  the  argillaceous 
seams  are  so  covered  and  obscured  as  to  be  scarcely  or  at  all  visible,  but  the 
weathering  of  one  or  two  years  usually  shows  their  presence. 

"  The  usual  process  of  dressing  limestone  rather  exaggerates  the  cause  of 
dilapidation  from  the  shaly  seams  in  the  material.  The  clay  being  softer  than 
the  adjacent  stone  the  blow  of  the  hammer  or  other  tool  breaks  the  lime- 
stone at  the  margin  of  the  seam  and  drives  forward  in  the  space  little  wedge- 
shaped  bits  of  the  harder  stone.  A  careful  examination  of  dressed  surfaces  will 
often  show  the  limestone  along  the  seam  to  be  fractured  with  numerous  thin 
wedge-shaped  slivers  of  the  stone  which  have  been  broken  off  and  are  more  or 
less  driven  forward  into  the  softer  parts.  In  looking  at  similar  surfaces  which 


STOA'ES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  399 

(2)   PROTECTION  BY  MEANS  OF  SOLUTIONS. 

Many  methods  have  been  devised  for  checking  or  altogether 
preventing  the  unfavorable  action  of  the  weather  upon  build- 
ing stone  of  various  kinds,  but  none  of  them  can  be  considered 
as  really  satisfactory.  The  problem,  as  may  be  readily  under- 
stood, consists  in  finding  some  fluidal  substance  into  which  the 
stone  may  be  dipped  or  which  may  be  applied  with  a  brush  to 
its  outer  surface  in  such  a  manner  as  to  fill  its  pores  and  thus 
prevent  all  access  of  moisture.  Whatever  the  substance,  it 
must  be  of  such  a  nature  as  in  no  way  to  discolor  or  disfigure 
the  stone. 

Paint. — This  is  one  of  the  substances  most  generally  used, 
and  which  has  been  employed  on  the  porous  sandstone  of  the 
Capitol,  White  House,  Patent  Office,  and  other  public  build- 
ings in  Washington.  It  is  found  necessary  to  renew  the  coat- 
ing every  two  or  three  years,  and  even  then  the  results  are  un- 
satisfactory. 

OIL — This  always  discolors  a  light-colored  stone,  while  it 
renders  a  dark-colored  one  still  darker.  The  oil  is  applied  as 
follows :  The  surface  of  the  stone  is  washed  clean,  and  after 
drying  is  painted  with  one  or  more  coats  of  boiled  linseed  oil, 
and  finally  with  a  weak  solution  of  ammonia  in  warm  water. 
This  renders  the  tint  more  uniform.  This  method  has  been 

have  been  a  long  time  exposed  to  the  weather,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  stone 
adjacent  to  the  seam  presents  an  interrupted  fractured  margin,  the  small  frag- 
ments having  dropped  out  in  the  process  of  weathering.  Limestones  of  this 
character  are  much  better  adapted  to  rough  dressing,  when  the  blows  are 
directed  away  from  the  surface  instead  of  against  it,  and  when  the  entire  sur- 
face shall  be  left  of  the  natural  fresh  fracture.  By  this  process  the  clay  seams 
have  not  been  crushed,  nor  the  limestone  margining  them  broken,  and  the  stone 
withstands  the  weather  much  longer  than  otherwise.  The  attempt  at  fine 
hammer-dressing  is  injurious  to  any  stone,  for  the  cohesion  of  the  particles  is 
necessarily  destroyed,  and  a  portion  of  the  surface  left  in  a  condition  to  be 
much  more  readily  acted  upon  by  the  weather." 


400  STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

tried  on  several  houses  in  New  York  City,  and  the  water-proof 
coating  thus  produced  found  to  last  some  four  or  five  years, 
when  it  must  be  renewed. 

Paraffine. — This,  dissolved  in  coal-tar  naphtha,  is  spoken 
of,*  but  is  not  recommended.  A  better  method  consists  in 
brushing  over  the  surface  of  the  building  with  melted  paraffine 
and  then  heating  it  gently  until  it  has  been  nearly  all  absorbed 
into  the  pores  of  the  stone.  This  produces  little  or  no  dis- 
coloration, but  it  is  thought  doubtful  by  some  if  the  heating  of 
the  stone  is  not  more  injurious  than  the  paraffine  is  beneficial. 

The  preparation  used  in  coating  the  Egyptian  obelisk  in 
Central  Park,  New  York,  is  said  by  Mr.  Caffal  f  to  have  con- 
sisted of  paraffine  containing  creosote  dissolved  in  turpentine, 
the  creosote  being  considered  efficacious  in  preventing  organic 
growth  upon  the  stone.  The  melting  point  of  the  compound 
is  about  140°  Fahrenheit.  In  applying,  the  surface  to  be 
coated  is  first  heated  by  means  of  especially  designed  lamps 
and  charcoal  stoves,  and  the  melted  compound  applied  with  a 
brush.  On  cooling  it  is  absorbed  to  a  depth  dependent  upon 
the  degree  of  penetration  of  the  heat.  In  the  case  of  the 
obelisk,  Mr.  Caffal  states  that,  in  his  belief,  it  was  absorbed  to 
the  depth  of  half  an  inch.  Some  6/f  pounds  of  the  material 
was  used  in  going  over  the  220  square  yards  of  surface.  An 
equal  surface  of  brown  sandstone  is  stated  to  require  ordinarily 
about  40  or  50  pounds.  The  cost  of  treating  an  ordinary  25- 
foot  brownstone  front,  with  a  porch,  is  given  by  this  authority 
at  from  $200  to  $300.  This  process,  like  the  last,  has  been 
objected  to  by  some  on  the  ground  that  the  heating  was  liable 
to  injure  the  stone.  Just  how  much  injury  is  likely  to  result 
from  a  temperature  lower  than  that  of  boiling  water,  it  is  per- 


*  Notes  on  Building  Construction. 

f  Transactions  New  York  Academy  of  Science,  November,  1885,  p.  66. 


STONES  FOR  BUILDING  AND   DECORATION.  40 1 

haps  yet  too  early  to  say.  It  seems  scarcely  possible  that  a 
good  quality  of  sandstone  laid  on  its  bed  could  be  at  all 
unfavorably  affected ;  neither,  it  is  safe  to  say,  would  brick. 

Soft  soap  and  alum  solution;  Sylvester  s  process. — This  con- 
sists of  three  fourths  of  a  pound  of  soft  soap  to  one  gallon  of 
boiling  water  and  one  half  a  pound  of  alum  in  4  gallons  of 
water.  It  is  said  to  answer  well  in  exposed  situations  in 
England,  but  to  require  frequent  renewal.  It  is  stated,*  how- 
ever, that  this  solution  was  applied  in  1863  to  the  stone-walls 
forming  the  back  bays  of  the  gate-houses  of  the  Croton  reser- 
voir in  New  York  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  them  imper- 
vious to  water,  and  that  up  to  1870 — the  date  of  the  report — it 
had  served  the  purpose  intended. 

Ransome' s  process. — This  consists  in  saturating  the  stone  as 
far  as  practicable  with  a  solution  of  silicate  of  soda  or  potash 
(water  glass)  and  afterwards  applying  a  solution  of  chloride  of 
calcium.  This  last  coming  in  contact  with  the  silicate  pro- 
duces by  double  decomposition  an  insoluble  silicate  of  lime, 
cementing  the  grains  of  which  the  stone  is  composed  firmly 
together. f 

"  The  solution  of  silicate  is  first  applied  in  a  dilute  form  so 
as  to  be  absorbed  readily  into  the  pores  of  the  stone.  Several 
coats  are  applied  with  an  ordinary  whitewash  brush  and  when 
thoroughly  dry  the  surface  is  washed  with  rain  water,  again 
allowed  to  dry,  and  the  calcium  solution  applied  in  the  same 
manner.  The  precautions  to  be  used  are:  (i)  the  stone  must 
be  clean  and  dry  before  applying  the  solution  ;  (2)  the  silicate 
must  be  applied  until  the  stone  is  fully  saturated,  but  no  excess 
must  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  surface ;  the  calcium  must 

*  Transactions  American  Society  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  i.  p.  203. 

f  Dobson,  Masonry  and  Stone-Cutting,  p.  141.  See  also  American  Archi 
tect  and  Builder,  1877,  n.  p.  21,  38,  and  Notes  on  Building  Construction, 
p.  79- 


4O2  STONES  FOR   BUILDING  AND   DECORATION. 

not  be  applied  until  after  the  silicate  is  dry ;  a  clear  day  or  so 
should  intervene  if  possible  ;  (4)  care  must  be  t&ken  that  either 
solution  is  not  splashed  upon  the  windows  or  upon  painted 
work,  as  it  cannot  be  removed  therefrom ;  (5)  upon  no  account 
should  the  same  brush  be  used  for  both  solutions.  Under 
ordinary  circumstances  about  4  gallons  of  each  solution  will  be 
required  for  every  100  yards  of  surface." 

Szerelmey's  stone  liquid  is  stated  to  be  a  combination  of 
Kuhlman's  process  with  a  temporary  wash  of  some  bituminous 
substance.  The  wall  being  made  perfectly  dry  and  clean,  the 
liquid  is  applied  in  two  or  three  coats  with  a  painter's  brush, 
until  a  slight  glaze  appears  on  the  surface.  This  composition 
was  used  with  some  success  in  arresting  for  a  time  the  decay  of 
the  stone  in  the  House  of  Parliament.* 

Kuhlmaris  process  consists  in  simply  coating  the  surface  of 
the  stone  with  a  silicate  of  soda  or  potash  solution.  It  is  open 
to  the  objection  that  the  potash  absorbs  carbonic  acid  from 
the  air  and  produces  a  disagreeable  efflorescence,  which,  how- 
ever, disappears  in  time. 

M.  Lewiris  process  consists  in  coating  the  surface  of  the 
stone  with  solutions  of  an  alkaline  silicate  (silicate  of  potash) 
and  alumina,  the  latter  in  the  form  of  sulphate.  It  is  stated 
that  this  wash  will  give  so  close  a  surface  to  sandstone  that  it 
can  be  polished. (?)  Either  of  the  solutions  can  be  colored  if 
desired. f 

Various  other  solutions,  including  those  of  beeswax,  rosin, 
and  coal-tar,  have  been  tried,  both  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe;  but  in  nearly  every  case  with  indifferent  success.  The 
Droblem  of  devising  a  perfectly  satisfactory  preservative  yet 
remains  to  be  solved. 


*  Notes  on  Building  Construction,  p 
f  Journal  Franklin  Institute,  3rd,  L? 


:tion,  p.  79. 

3rd,  LXIX,  1875,  p.  338. 


PART    IV, 


APPENDIX   I. 

THE  QUA  LIT  IRS  OF  BUILDING  STONE  AS  SHOWN  BY  THEIR 
CRUSHING  STRENGTH,  WEIGHT,  RATIO  OF  ABSORPTION, 
AND  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION. 

403 


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rpentine,  near  Dublin,  Harford  County, 

rpentine  var.  "Williamsite,  Lancaster  C 
rpentine  (verclantique  marble)  Hoxburj 

,.  -,  .•  1.1..\  f\  11 

i 

D 
> 

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Limestones  and  dolomites  other  than 

^l/imitr,  T.OTnr»Tit  Til 

i 
j 

r 
1 

3 

mestone  (oolitic),  Belfonl,  Ind  
mestone  (oolitic).  Spencer,  lud  
ruestone,  Bloomington,  Ind  
inestone,  North  Vernon,  Ind  
mestone,  Harrison  County,  Ind.  (Stockla 
mestone,  Flat  Hock  Creek,  near  Saint  P 
mestone,  Green  bury,  Ind  
licious  limestone,  Putnamville,  Ind  

agneaian  limestone,  Anaraosa,  Iowa  
a^nesian  limestone,  Le  Claire,  Iowa  ... 

£           1 

C       <5§       £    c 

I 

3£ 

5 

jjj^jj^aa 

a  a 

APPENDIX  /. 


415 


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TJ 

ll 

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)apolis,Minn.  (  Weeks  <fcH 
Bapolis,  Minn.(Foley  &  He 

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ater,  Minn.  (Hersey  &  Co. 

1 

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rt  * 

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e,  Min 


Limestone  (lith 
Limestone  (ool 


a  ss  1=  i . 


IS 


est 


d  II 

H3-3     Q 


Dolomitic  lim 
bert's  quarr 
Dolomitic  lim 
quarry). 


416 


APPENDIX  /. 


o 


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tB|« 

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a 

O 

i  , 

III 
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1-4                                         C 

la.  Silica  and 
mi-  insoluhle 
i.  residue. 

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Maornesian  limestone.  Marblehead.  Ohio.  .. 

Argillaceous  dolomite,  Yellow  Springs,  Ohio  .. 
Dolomite,  Greenfield,  Ohio  
Dolomite,  Springfield,  Ohio  

APPENDIX  I. 


417 


3G 


I 


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ili 


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ill  ili 


rH        C5 


a 


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418 


APPENDIX  I. 


1 
.£  \ 
? 

Sulphur 
and 
copper. 

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TABLES  SHOWING  THE  CH 

Granites. 

Granite,  Monson,  Mass,  (light)  

Granite,  Monson,  Mass,  (dark)  
Hornblende  granite,  East  Saint  Cloud,  M 

Hornblende  granite,  Sauk  Rapids,  Minn 
Hornblende  granite,  Beaver  Bay,  Minn  . 
Hornblende  granite,  East  Saint  Cloud,  M 
Do... 

Hornblende  granite,  Watab,  Minn  
Do... 

0 

i 

5 

2 
1 

Hornblende  biotite  granite,  Utah  

j  QUARTZ  POKrHTRIEB. 

Quartz  porphyry,  Waterville,  N.  H  .  .  .  . 

Quartz  porphyry  "leopardite,"  Heck 
..burgh,  N.  C. 

APPENDIX  L 


419 


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APPENDIX  I. 


.  2SS  &  53  :  : 

o'  so  c*  i-<  i-i   o   <?*    •    •        •    • 


000        000        O        TH        ~ 


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APPENDIX  I. 


421 


APPENDIX  II. 


PRICES  AND  COST  OF  CUTTING. 

The  prices  of  stone  and  the  cost  of  cutting  vary  with  the  price  of 
labor  and  the  conditions  of  the  market,  hence  exact  figures  can  not  be 
given.  Those  given  below  are  quoted  from  reliable  sources,  and  will 
doubtless  be  found  as  near  correct  as  possible  in  a  work  of  this  kind. 
The  prices  are  for  the  rough  stone  and  at  the  quarry,  ordinary  size. 


Kinds. 

Price  per  cu- 
bic foot. 

Cost  of  dressing  per  square  foot. 

Remarks. 

Sawn. 

Rub- 
bed. 

Pointed. 

A  x-  h  am  - 
mered. 

Bush-ham- 
mered  or 
chiseled. 

Granites: 
Common  
Monumental  .  .  . 
Marbles  : 
Statuary  

$0.35  to  $0.75 
.75  to   1.50 

7.00  to  9.00 
1.50  to  2.50 
2.  00  to  4.00 
4.  00  to  5.00 
.75  to  3.00 

1.00  to  2.00 

1.00 
.  03  to     .10 

$0.40 
.40 
.40 
.40 
.40 

$0.90 
.90 
.90 
.90 
.90 

$0.25  to  $0.40 
.25  to     .40 

.25 
.25 
.25 
.25 
.25 

.lOto     .15 

$0.25  to  $0.50 
.25  to     .50 

.5* 
.50 
.50 
.50 
.50 

.30 

$0.40  to  $0.75 
,40to     .75 

.75 
.75 
.75 
.75 
.75 

Extra    prices 
for  blocks 
above  25  cu 
bic  feet. 

Per  square 
foot  and  2  to  3 
inches  thick; 
flagging. 
Per    square 
footand4to8 
inches  thick; 
platforms, 
etc. 
Buildin  g 
stone. 

Per  square  = 
100    square 
feet. 

Common  . 

Decorative  
Monumental.  .  . 
Tennessee  
Sandstones  : 
Brown  Triassic 

Berea              ... 

K.  Y.  bluestone 
Do 

.15 

.25 

Medina 

.60 
50  to      75 

.20to     .40 
2.00to  3.60 

.10 

.15 

.15 

sylvania.' 
Slates  

422 


APPENDIX  II. 


423 


Price-lift  of  Italian  marbles. 


Quality. 

Kind  of  stone. 

Quasry. 

Price  per  cn- 
bio  foot. 

Remark*. 

First 

Statuary 

Poggio  Silvestro 

Lira* 
35  to  40 

Prices  reckoned  on  block  a 

do 

do 

15  to  18 

First 

do 

Bettogli     

30  to  35 

o  n  dinary  cl«ktUtt  5  fttwt  iu 

Second 

do 

do                . 

12  to  15 

height. 

First 

White  or  black  marble 

Canal  Bianco 

10 

Do 

do 

Gioja                 .. 

9.30 

Prioea  reckoned  on  blocks 

Second 

do 

6  to  6  50 

>    containing  not  leaa  tuau 

Third 

.    ..do   

Tanti  Scritti 

4  to  4.26 

20  cubic  feat. 

First  
Second 

White  veined  

do 

Vara  

Gioja 

10.50 
7 

First 

Bardielio          

Para 

a.  so 

Second  ... 

do  

Gioia 

6.50 

First 

Bardielio  veined 

Serravezza         . 

a  75 

Second  .  . 

do  .. 

do  

7.25 

First 

Portor  black  and  gold 

Spezia 

10.50 

Do... 

Red  mixed  

Levanto     ....... 

10.50 

Do.. 

Pariiiazo       .          ........... 

Misedia 

12 

do  

Pescma.  ...... 

12 

Prices  of  all  of  these  de- 

do         

Bocca  del  Frobbi 

12 

>     pend  upon  the  sizea  of 

Yellow 

18  to  20 

the  pieces  and   the 

Portor 

Mnntft  d'  A  rnia 

11 

beauty  of  the  vetoing. 

Black 

Colonnata 

10.50 

Breccia            ............ 

Gragnana  .  . 

Exceptional. 

Yellow 

do 

do 

do 

do         

Genoa 

do  .. 

Breccia  

Serravezza  

....do  

Yellow       

Verona   .  . 

..    do  . 

Ked 

Castel  Poggio 

7 

*A  lira  equals  19.3  cents  American  money. 

NOTE.— For  this  list  of  quarries  and  prices  we  are  indebted  to  Hon.  William  P.  Rioo,  United  State 
consul  at  Leghorn,  Italy. 


APPENDIX    III. 

LIST  OF  SOME  OF  THE  MOEE  IMPORTANT  STONE  STRUCTURES  OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES. 


Locality. 


Akron,  Ohio  .. 
Albany,  N.  Y. 


Augusta,  Me 


Atlant!..  ^a... 
Baltimore,  Lid 


Bangor,  Me . . 
Boston,  Maes 


Structure. 


Memorial  Chapel 
State  Capitol 


City  Hall 

United  States  court  and  post-of- 
fice building. 

State  Capitol 

Asylum  for  the  Insane 

United  States  Arsenal 

United  States  post-office  and 
court-house. 

Eutaw  Place  Baptist  Church 


Presbyterian 
Presbyterian 


Material. 


Sandstone,  Marietta,  Ohio 

Granite,  Hallo  well,  Me.  (in  great 
part). 

Granite,  Millford,  Mass 

Granite,  Maine , 


Granite,  Hallowell,  Me 

do 

do 

Granite,  Yt 


White   marble    (dolomite),  Texas 

and  Cockeysville,  Md. 
do 


.do. 


Brown    Memorial 

Church. 
Franklin     Street 

(Jhurch. 

City  Hall    

Peabody  Institute 

First  Presbyterian  Church i  Sandstone,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J . 

City  Prison  Gneiss,  Jones's  Falls,  Md. 


.do. 
do. 


Catholic  Cathedral . 

Post-office  and  custom-house 

King's  Chapel 

United  States  custom-house 

United  States  court-house 

Masonic  Temple 

St.  Paul's  Church 

Merchants  'Exchange 

Mount  Vernon  Church 

Unitarian  Church,  Jamaica  Plains. 
Bowdoin  Square  Baptist  Church.. 

Bunker  Hill  Monument 

United  States  post-office 

Boston  Water- works 

St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Church 

Herald  Building 

Transcript  Building 

Advertiser  Building 


Gneiss,  Ellicott  City,  Md. 
Granite,  Frankfort,  Me... 

Granite  (bowlders) 

Granite,  Quincy,  Mass 


Massachusetts  General  Hospital..; 


do 

Granite,  Cape  Ann,  Mass 

do 

do 

Granite,  Concord,  N.  H  .. 
do 

do 


Massachusetts  General  Hospital  I do 

(addition). 


Granite,  Westford,  Mass 


Eqiitable  Insurance  Company's 

building. 
Odd  Fellows'  Memorial  Hall  (in 

part). 

Parker  House,  on  School  street 

St.  Cloud  Hotel 

Hotel  Dartmouth 

Hotel  Vendome  (old  part) 

New  York  Mutual  Life  Insurance 

Company's  building. 

Hotel  Vendome  (new  part) 

Hotel  Pelham... 


Second  Unitarian  Church. 
Arlington  Street  Church.. 


Young   Men's    Christian  Union, 

Boylston  street. 
Young  Men's  Christian  Union. . . 


Granite,  Hallowell,  Me 
...do... 


Marble,  Rutland,  Vt 

do 

do 

Marble,  Italy 

Marble  (dolomite),  Tuckahoe,  N.  Y. 

.do. 


Bed  sandstone,  Portland,  Conn., 
and  New  Jersey. 

Eed  sandstone,  Newark,  N.  J 

Bed  sandstone,  Belleville  and  Lit- 
tle Falls,  N.J 

Red  sandstone,  Bay  View,  New 
Brunswick. 

Sandstone,  Amherst,  Ohio 

424 


Date  of 
erec- 
tion. 


iaaa-'82 


1884 

1829-'32 

1837-'40 

1823 

1880 


180S 

1855 

1749-'54 

1837.'43 

1830-'31 

1828-'29 

1829 

1842 


1825-'42 


iaia-'2i 

1849 


1854 


APPENDIX  III, 


425 


LIST  OF  SOME  OF  THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  STONE  STRUCTURES  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES— Continued. 


Locality. 


Structure. 


Material. 


Date  of 
erec- 
tion. 


Boston,  Mass . 


Brooklyn,  N.Y 

Cambridge,  Mass  . . . 
Chicago,  111 


Columbia,  S.  C 
Denver,  Colo  . 


Denver,  Colo —  . 
Hoboken,  N.  J — 
Hout?hton,  Mich. . 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Jersey  City,  N.  J. 


Lansing.  Mich... 
Louisville,  Ky... 
Maiden,  Mass 


Middletown,  Conn  .. 
Minneapolis.  Minn  . 


Mobile,  Ala 

Nashville,  Tenn 


Newark,  N.  J 

New  Orleans,  La ... 
New  York  City 


Harvard  College  Building,  Arch 
street. 
First  Church,  Marlborough  and 

Berkeley  streets. 
Brattle  Square  Church 


Sandstone,  Amherst,  Ohio 

Conglomerate,  Roxbnry,  Mass^. 


Central  Congregational  Church.. 
Emanuel  Chuach,  Newbury  street 


.do. 
.6.0. 


New  Old  South  Church 

Second  Universalist  Church 

Tremont  Street  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church. 

Cathedral  of  the  Holy  Cross 

St.  James  (Episcopal)  Church... 

St.  Peter's  Church  (Dorchester) . 

Trinity  Church 

Academy  of  Design,  Montague 
street. 

Soldiers'  Monument 

Court-house  ... 


.do. 


.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


do. 


.do. 


do. 


post-office 


do 

Custom-house    and 

building. 
Chamber  of  Commerce . 


Palmer  House 

Grand  Pacific  Hotel 

St.  Paul  Universalist  Church 

Union  League  Clubhouse 


Granite,  Dedham,  Mass ! . 

Brown  sandstone,  Portland,  Conn.  J 


Granite,  Mason,  N.  H 

Dolomite,  Lemon t,  111 

S  Granite,  Fox  Island,  Me 

^Oolitic  limestone,  Bedford,  Ind 

Sandstone,  Freestone,  Ohio 


Granite,  Fox  Island  and  Hallo- 
well,  Me. 

Sandstone,  Amherst,  Ohio 

...do...  


Dolomite,  Lemont,  HI 

Brown     sandstone,     Springfield, 


Central  Music  Hall 

State  House 

Post-office  and  court-house 

Windsor  Hotel 

Union  Depot  

Union  Pacific  Freight  Depot 

Rio  Grande  Depot 

State  capitol  building1 

Stevens  Institute  building 

State  Mining  School  buildings. . , 

Court  House 

State  House 

Court  House , 

St.  Patrick's  Cathedral 

State  capitol  building 

U.  S.  Custom  House 

Converse  Memorial  Library 

Wesleyan  University  buildings. 
"Washburne  Flouring  Mills 


Dolomite,  Lemont,  HI 

Granite,  near  Columbia,  S.  C 

Granite,  Winnsborough,  S.  C 

Rhyolite-tuff,  Douglas  County, Colo 
...do 


.do. 
.do. 


Sandstone,  Gunnison,  Colo 

Diabase,  Jersey  City 

Sandstone,  Portage  Entry,  Mich. 

Bedford  Oolite \.. 

...do... 


Diabase,  Jersey  City 

do ... 

Sandstone,  Amherst,  Ohio , 

Bedford  Oolite 

Sandstone,  East   Long   Meadow, 


University  of  Minnesota 

Universalist  Church 

City  hall 

Westminister  Presbyterian 
Church. 

Custom-House. 

do... 


Brown  sandstone,  Portland,  Conn 
Magnesian  limestone,  Minneapo- 
lis, Minn. 
do 


.do. 

.do. 


State  capitol 

Custom  -  house  and  post  -  o  ffi  c  e 
building. 

County  court-house 

Custom-house 

Monument  to  General  Robert  E.  C 
Lee.                                              I 
Colunibia  College  

Trinity   Church,  Broadway    and 

Wall  street. 
Lenox  Library,  Fifth  avenue  and 

Seventieth  street. 
Hospital,   Sailors'  Snug  Harbor, 

Staten  Island. 
Ludlow  street  jail 


Brown  sandstone,  Fond  dti  Lac,, 

Minn. 
Granite,  Quincy,  Mass 

Oolitic  limestone,  Bowling  Green, 

Limestone  near  Nashville,  Tenn.. 
Sandstone,  Little  Falls,  N.  J 

.do. 


Granite,  Quincy,  Mass 

Granite,  Georgia 

Gray  marble,  Knoxville,  Tenn 

Red  sandstone,  Potsdam,  N.  Y 

Brown  sandstone,  LittleFalls,  N.  J. 


Limestone,  Lockport,  N.  Y. 
Granite,  Spru< 


.1880 


1873-'85 


1881-'83 


1858 
1883 


1859 


1872 


426 


APPENDIX  III. 


LIST  OF  SOME  OF  THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  STONE  STRUCTURES  OF  TEE 
UNITED  STATES— Continued. 


Locality. 


Structure. 


Material, 


Date  of 

erec- 
tion. 


New  York  City 


New  York  City  and 
Brooklyn. 


Philadelphia,  Pa,... 


Portland.  Me 


Sails  of  justice  or  "  Tombs  " 

Seventh  Regiment  armory 

Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art 

S"ew  York  post-office 

ourt-house  in  City  Hall  Park. . . . 

Astor  House 

Reformed  Church,  La  Fayette 

Place. 

Egyptian  obelisk  in  Central  Park  . 
St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  (in  part).. 
Old  city  hali,  east,  south,  and 

west  fronts. 

Treasury  building,  Wall  street  . . 
St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  (in  part). 

Stock  Exchange 

St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  (in  part) . 

Union  Dime  Savings  Bank 


.  do . 


Granite,  Round  Pond,  Me. 
Granite,  Mt.  Desert,  Me  . . 
Granite,  Dix  Island,  Me  .. 

do 

Granite,  Quincy,  Mass 

do 


188$ 


Hornblende  granite,  Egypt ' 

Dolomite  (marble),  Leo,  Mass I 

Dolomite  (marble),  West  Stock 
bridge,  Mass. 
-do 


Fortifications,  Fort  Richmond... 

Fortifications,  Fort  Lafayette 

Fortifications  at  Willets  Point  . . 

Fortifications  at  Governor's  Isl- 
and. 

Fortifications  at  Bedloe's  Island. 

Fortifications  at  Ellis  Island 

Fortifications,  Fort  Schuyler, 
Throgg's  Neck. 

Fortifications,  Fort  Wadsworth, 
Staten  Island. 

Fortifications,  Fort  Hamilton 

Fortifications,  Fort  Diamond 


Dolomite  (marble),  Tuckahoe.N.Y. 

do 

"Snowflake"  marble    (dolomite), 

Pleasantville,  N.  Y. 
Marble  (dolomite),  Pleasantville, 

N.  Y. 

Granite,  Dix  Island,  Me 

Brown  sandstone,  New  Jersey . . . 
Granite,  Spruce  Head,  Me 

...do 


.do. 


.do. 


Gneiss 


New  York  and  Brooklyn  bridge. 


Girard  Bank. 


United  States  custom-house 

United  States  mint 

United  States  Naval  Asylum 

Merchants'  Exchange 

Girard  College 

Philadelphia  National  Bank 

First  National  Bank 

Now  Masonic  Temple 


New  Post-Office 

St.  Mark's  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church. 

Bank  of  Commerce 

Bank  of  North  America 

Holy  Trinity  Episcopal  Church  . 

Fifth  Baptist  Church 

New  city  buildings 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

Memorial  Baptist  Church 

Holy  Communion  Church 

Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  . .  - 

Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion. 

Forts  Preble,  Scammel,  and  Gorges 

Post-office 


Granite,  Maine. 


Granite,  Frankfort,  Me.;  Concord, 
N.H.;  Spruce  Head,  Me.;  Cape 
Ann,  Mass.;  Hurricane  Island, 
Me.;  Westerly,  R.  I.;  East  Blue- 
hill,  Me.;  Stony  Creek,  Conn.; 
Mt.  Desert  Island,  Me.;  Chance- 
burgh,  N.  J. 

Limestone,  Rondout,  N.  Y.;  King- 
ston, N.  Y.;  Isle  La  Motte, 
Lake  Champlain;  Willsborough 
Point,  Lake  Champlain;  near 
Catskill,  N.  Y. 

Limestone  (marble),  Montgomery 
County,  Pa. 

do 1819 

do 1829 

do 1830 

do 18:»2 

do 1833 

Granite,  Quincy,  Mass 1850-'eO 

.    ..  do I        18fK> 

Granite,  Fox  Island,   Me.;  Cape          1872 

Ann,  Mass. 
Granite,  Dix  Island,   Me.;  Rich-          1883 

mond,  Va. 
Sandstone,  Portland,  Conn 1849 


1798 


.do. 

.do. 


.do. 


do. 


Dolomite  (marble),  Lee  Mass  — 
Serpentine,  Chester  County,  Pa. 
do. 


do 

do  

Sandstone,  Ohio. 


Granite,  Mount  Waldo,  Biddeford, 

and  Spruce  Head,  Me. 
Crystalline    limestone     (marble), 

Vormout. 


1830 
1850 
1857 
1863 

"l871 
1874 

1875 
187G 
1868 


1872 


APPENDIX  III. 


427 


LIST  OF  SOME  OF  THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  STONE  STRUCTURES  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES— Continued. 


Locality. 


Structure. 


Material. 


Date  of 
erec- 
tion. 


Providence,  R.  I — 


Saint  Paul,  Minn. 


Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 
San  Francisco,  Cal... 

Savannah,  Ga 

Trenton,  N.  J 

Washington,  D.  C  „ . . 


Custom-house. 
City  hall 


Soldiers'  and  sailors'  monument  .  - 

Post-office  and  custom-house 

Roger  "Williams's  monument 

New  Catholic  cathedral 

Grace  Church 

First  Congregational  Church 

Catholic  cathedral 


'Unitarian  church 

St.  Paul's  Episcopal  church 

United  States  custom-house  and 
post-office. 

Adams  school 

Franklin  school 

County  jail    

Assembly  house 


New  Mormon  Temple. 
Bank  of  California... 


United  States  mint 


Granite,  Hallowell,  Me.,  Concord, 

N.  H. 
Granite,  Hurricane  Island,  Me.; 

Westerly,  K.  I.,  and  Concord, 

N.H.     ' 

Granite,  Westerly,  R.  I 

Granite,  Quincy,  Mass 

Granite,  Westerly,  R.  I 

Sandstone,  Portland,  Conn 

Sandstone,  Little  Falls,  N.  J 

Granite.  Smithfield,  R.  I 

Magnesian  limestone,  Saint  Paul, 

Minn. 

...do... 


1872 


1858 


Magnesian     limestone,     Elasota, 
Minn. 
...do... 


1873-74 
1872 


Granite,  Little  Cottonwood  Caiion, 
Utah. 
...do... 


Presbyterian  church. 
Custom-house  . . 


Blue  sandstone,  Angel  Island, 
San  Francisco  Bay. 

Sandstone,  New  Castle  Island, 
Gulf  of  Georgia,  British  Colum- 
bia. 

Granite,  Quincy,  Mass 


1865 
1874 


State  capitol 

State  prison 

Executive  Mansion 

Treasury  Building,  old  portion... 
Treasury  Building,  new  portion. . . 
Patent  Office  Building,  old  portion. 
Patent  Office  Building,  extension. 

Chapel  in  Oak  Hill  Cemetery 

Georgetown  College  (new  build- 
ing.) 

Cabin  John's  Bridge,  parapets 
and  coping. 

Washington  Monument,  exterior, 
in  part. 

Washington  Monument,  exterior. 

Washington  Monument,  interior. . 


General  Post-Office,  old  portion. . 
General  Post-Office,  extension 

United  States  Capitol,  old  portion 
United  States  Capitol,  extension. 
United  States  Capitol,  extension, 
columns. 

Smithsonian  Institution 

St.  Dominick's  Church 

Corcoran  Art  Gallery  (in  part)  . . . 

State,  War,  and  Navy  Building. 


.do. 


Sandstone,  Trenton,  N.  J. 
do  

Sandstone,  Acquia  Creek 


1852 


.do- 


Granite,  Dix  Island,  Maine    

Sandstone,  Acquia  Creek,  Va. . . . 
Dolomite  (marble),  Cockeysville, 

Md. 
Mica  schist,  near  Washington  . . . 

...do... 


1836  '41 

1855 

1837-'42 

1849-'64 


Bntler  house,  Capitol  Hill 

Congressional  Library  building.. 


Sandstone,  Seneca  Creek,  Md ] 

Dolomite  (marble),   Lee,  Mass..  f 

Dolomite  (marble),  Cockeysville. 

Md. 
Mica  schist,   near    Washington  ; 

granite,      Massachusetts      and 

Maine. 
Dolomite  (marble) ,  West  Chester, 

N.T. 
Dolomite  (marble),  Cockeysville, 

Md. 

Sandstone,  Acquia  Creek 

Dolomite  (marble;,  Lee,  Mass  . . 
Dolomite  (marble),   Cockeysville, 

Md. 

Sandstone,  Seneca  Creek,  Md 

Gneiss,  Port  Deposit,  Md 

Sandstone,  Belleville,  N.  J 

Basement  and  sub-basement  gran- 

ite.Maine  ;  superstructure  gran- 
ite, near  Richmond,  Va. 

Granite,  Cape  Ann,  Mass , 

Granite,  Concord,  N.H 


1848-'55 
1848-'84 


1839 
1855 


1793 
1851-'65 


1847-'5G 
1871-"'86 


Begun 
. . . 1890 


APPENDIX    IV. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  WORKS  ON  BUILDING  STONE. 

The  following  list  includes  all  the  principal  works  on  the 
subject  of  building  stone  which  have  come  under  the  writer's 
notice.  It  does  not  include  isolated  and  special  papers  which 
have  appeared  from  time  to  time  in  various  journals  and  per- 
iodicals, or  State  geological  reports.  Such,  when  containing 
matter  of  sufficient  importance,  have  been  mentioned  in  the 
text  and  reference  given  in  the  foot-notes.  The  list  is  arranged 
alphabetically  by  authors. 

BLUM,  Dr.  J.  REINHARD.  Lithurgik  oder  Mineralien  und  Felsarten  nach  ihrer 
Anvvendung  in  okonomischer,  artistischer  und  technischer  Hinsicht  sys- 
tematisch  abgehandelt.  Stuttgart,  1840. 

BOHME,  Dr.  Die  Festigkeit  der  Baumaterialien.  Resultate  der  Untersuchungen 
in  der  Station  zur  Priifung  der  Festigkeit  von  Bausteinen  an  der  konig- 
lichen  Gewerbe-Akademie  zu  Berlin,  etc.  Berlin,  1876. 

BURGOYNE,  Sir  JOHN.  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  the  Blasting  and  Quarrying  of 
Stone.  London:  J.  Wale,  1852. 

BURNHAM,  S.  M.  History  and  Uses  of  Limestone  and  Marbles.  Illus- 
trated, with  colored  plates.  Boston:  S.  E.  Cassino  &  Co.,  1883. 

CHATEAU,  THEODORE.  Technologic  du  Batiment  ou  Etude  Complete  des 
Materiaux  de  toute  EspSce  employes  dans  les  constructions,  etc.  2.  ed. 
Paris,  1880. 

DAVIES,  D.  C.  Slate  and  Slate  Quarrying.  London:  Crosby,  Lockwood  & 
Co.,  1878. 

DELESSE,  A.  Materiaux  de  Construction  de  1'Exposition  Universelle  de  1855. 
Paris,  1856. 

DOBSON,  EDWARD.  Masonry  and  Stone-cutting.  Weaie's  Rudimentary  series. 
London:  Crosby,  Lockwood  &  Co.,  1873. 

428 


APPENDIX  IV,  429 


GERSTENBERGK,    HEINRICH   VON.       Katechismus  der  Baumaterialkunde,   etc. 

Berlin,  1868. 
GOTTGETREU,  RUDOLPH.     Physische  und  Chemische  Beschaffenheit  der  Baum- 

aterialien.     2  vols.     Berlin,  i88o-'8i.     Verlag  von  Julius  Springer. 
GRUEBER,  BERNHARD.     Die  Baumaterialien-Lehre.     Berlin,  1863.     Verlag  von 

Ernst  &  Korn. 

GWILT,  JOSEPH.     An  Encyclopedia  of  Architecture.     London,  1851. 
HALL,  PRO!.  JAMES.     Report  on  Building  Stones. 
HARRIS,  GEORGE  F.     Granite  and  our  Granite  Industries.     London:  Crosby, 

Lockvvood  &  Son,  1888. 
HARTMANN,    Dr.  CARL.      Vollstandiges    Handbuch    der    Steinarbeiten,    etc. 

Weimar,  1862. 
HAUENSCHILD,    HANS.     Katechismus  der   Baumaterialien.      Wien:  Lehmann 

&  Wentzel,  1879. 
HULL,  EDWARD.     A  Treatise  on  the  Building  and  Ornamental  Stones  of  Great 

Britain  and  Foreign  Countries.     London:  Macmillan  &  Co.,  1872. 
KERSTEN,  E.     Die    Baumaterialienkunde,  etc.     Leipzig  (not  dated).      Verlag 

von  Eduard  Hahnel. 
KOLLSCH,  CARL.     Die  Baumaterialienkunde  fur  ausflihrende  Bautechniker  und 

fiir  Studirende  der  Bauwissenschaft.     Schvvetschke  &  Sohn.    Bruhn,  1861. 
KUNZ,  GEORGE  F.     Gems  and   Precious  Stones  of  North  America.     Scientific 

Publishing  Company,  New  York.  1890. 
MALECOT,  LEON.     Materiaux  de  Construction  employes  en  Belgique.    Bruxelles 

&  Liege,  1866. 
NEWBERRY,  J.  S.     Building  and  Ornamental  Stones.     Report  of  Judges,  Group 

i,  U.  S.  International  Exposition,  1876,  Vol.  ill.     Washington,  1880. 
Notes  on  Building  Construction.       Part  in.      Materials.     (South  Kensington 

Educational  Series).     London,  Oxford,  and  Cambridge,  1879. 
SCHLEGEL,   CARL  FRIEDRICH.       Die  Lehre  von  den  Baumaterialien  und  den 

Arbeiten  der  Maurer.     Leipzig:  Verlag  von  Heinrich  Matthes,  1857. 
SCHMIDT,  OTTO.     Die    Baumaterialien.     Berlin,   1881.     Verlag  von   Theodor 

Hofmann. 
SMOCK,  JOHN  C.     Building  Stone  in  the  State  of  New  York.     Bulletin  No.  3, 

New  York  State  Museum  of  Natural   History,  March  1888,  8vo,  152  pp. 
Report  on  the  Building  Stones  of  the  United  States,  and  Statistics  of  the  Quarry 

Industry  for  1880.     Vol.  x.     Report  of  the  Tenth  Census  of  the  United 

States.     Washington:  Government  Printing  Office,  1884. 

THURSTON,  R.  H.     Materials  of  Construction.    New  York:  Wiley  &  Sons,  1885. 
VIOLET,  ADOLPH.     Les  Marbres  et  les  Machines  atravailler  le  marbre.     (Rap- 
ports sur  1'Exposition  de  1878,  xxvin.)     Paris,  1879. 


430  APPENDIX  IV. 


VISSER,  J.  E.     Die  Baumaterialien.     Handbuch  fur  Architecten,  etc.     Emden, 

1861. 
WEBBER,  MARTIN.     Das  Schleifen,  Poliren,  Farben  und  kiinstlerische  Verzieren 

des  Marmors.     Weimar,  1878.     Bernhard  Friedrich  Voigt. 
WENCK,  Dr.  JULIUS.     Die  Lehre  von  den  Baumaterialien,  etc.     Berlin,  1863. 

The  works  mentioned  below  bear    upon  the  subject  only 

indirectly.     They  are  given  up  largely  to  metals  and  timber. 

ANDERSON,  JOHN.  The  Strength  of  Materials  and  Structures.  London:  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co.,  1880. 

BARLOW,  PETER.  A  Treatise  on  the  Strength  of  Materials,  etc.  New  Edition; 
revised.  London:  Lockwood  &  Co.  1867. 

B5HME,  Dr.     Die  Festigkeit  der  Baumaterialien.     Berlin,   1876. 

GILLMORE,  L.  A.  Notes  on  the  Compressive  Resistance  of  Freestones,  Brick 
Piers,  Hydraulic  Cement,  Mortars  and  Concretes.  New  York,  Wiley  & 
Sons,  1888. 

MORIN,  ARTHUR.    Resistance  des  Materiaux.    Paris:  L.  Hachette  &Co.,  1862. 


APPENDIX   V. 

GLOSSARY  OF   TERMS. 

JEolian  rocks.  Fragmental  rocks,  composed  of  wind-drifted  materials.  The 
"drift  sand  rock,"  the  common  building-stone  of  Bermuda,  is  a  good 
example. 

Argillaceous.     Containing  clayey  matter. 

Ashlar  masonry.     Cut  stone  laid  in  continuous  courses. 

Bardiglic.  This  is  a  favorite  Italian  marble  obtained  on  Montalto,  on  the 
southern  borders  of  Tuscany.  It  is  a  gray  or  bluish  color,  traversed  by 
dark  veins.  In  some  specimens  the  veining  assumes  the  appearance  of 
flowers,  when  it  is  known  as  Bardiglio  fiorito.  The  name  is  now  com- 
monly applied  to  any  marble  having  this  color  and  veining. 

Bastard  granite.  A  somewhat  indefinite  name  given  by  quarrymen  to  gneissic 
or  schistose  rocks,  resembling  granites  in  a  general  way,  but  differing  in 
structure.  The  name  ^s  frequently  applied  by  quarrymen  to  any  vein  or 
dike  rock  occurring  in  a  granite  quarry. 

Bird's-eye-marble.  A  term  used  in  Iowa  to  designate  a  fossil  coral  (Acerv- 
ularia  davidsoni),  and  used  for  making  small  ornaments. 

Bituminous.     Containing  bitumen. 

Breast.     The  face  or  wall  of  a  quarry  is  sometimes  called  by  this  name. 

Breccias.  Fragmental  stones,  the  Individual  particles  of  which  are  large  and 
angular  in  form. 

Bluestone.  In  Maryland  a  gray  gneiss  ;  in  Ohio,  a  gray  sandstone  ;  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  a  mica  schist  ;  in  New  York  a  blue-gray  sandstone  ; 
in  Pennsylvania  a  blue-gray  sandstone.  A  popular  term  ;  not  suffi- 
ciently definite  to  be  of  value. 

Butt.  The  butt  of  a  slate  quarry  is  where  the  overlying  rock  comes  in  contact 
with  an  inclined  stratum  of  slate  rock. 

Calcareous.     Containing  lime. 

Cavernous.  Containing  irregular  cavities  or  pores,  due  in  most  cases  to  the 
removal  of  some  mineral,  or  in  limestones  of  a  fossil. 

Cellular  or  vesicular.  Containing  cells  or  vesicles.  This  structure  is  very 

431 


43 2  APPENDIX    V. 


common  in  recent  eruptive  rocks,  especially  the  glassy  forms.  Some- 
times the  stone  contains  so  many  cells  that  it  will  float  on  water,  as  is 
the  case  with  common  pumice.  These  cells  are  in  many  cases  subse- 
quently filled  with  other  minerals,  and  the  rock  is  then  called  amygda- 
loidal.  The  Brighton  melaphyr  is  the  best  example  of  amygdaloidal 
-  structure  found  in  our  building  stones. 

Choncoidal  fracture.  When  the  surfaces  of  a  chip  broken  off  by  a  hammer 
are  curved  like  a  bivalve  mollusk  the  stone  is  said  to  have  a  choncoidal 
fracture.  Compact  stones,  like  lithographic  limestones,  obsidians,  and 
flints,  usually  break  in  this  manner. 

Clay-holes.  Cavities  in  stone  which  are  usually  filled  with  fine  sand  or  clayey 
material  often  of  a  lighter  color  than  the  stone  itself,  and  so  loosely 
coherent  as  to  fall  away  immediately  or  to  weather  out  on  exposure. 
They  are  especially  prevalent  "in  many  of  our  Triassic  sandstones,  and, 
besides  being  unsightly,  are  elements  of  weakness  and  should  always  be 
avoided. 

Concretionary.  Made  of  concretions,  or  rounded  particles  formed  by  the  col- 
lecting of  mineral  matter  around  some  centre  so  as  to  form  a  rounded 
mass  composed  of  concentric  layers  like  the  coatings  of  an  onion.  When 
the  concretions  are  small,  like  the  roe  of  a  fish,  the  structure  is  called 
oolitic,  or  if  large  as  a  pea,  pisolitic.  The  best  examples  of  this  struct- 
ure in  our  building  stones  are  the  oolitic  limestones  of  Bedford,  Indi- 
ana, and  other  places.  A  rare  structure  in  crystalline  rocks. 

Conglomerates.  Fragmental  stones  composed  of  large,  rounded  fragments. 
(See  p.  248.) 

Coquina.  The  Spanish  name  for  a  shell  limestone  which  occurs  abundantly  in 
Florida,  and  composed  simply  of  a  mass  of  shells  cemented  together. 
(See  p.  123.) 

Coral  limestone.     A  rock  composed  of  fragments  of  corals. 

Crystalline.  Consisting  wholly  of  crystals  or  crystalline  particles,  not  frag- 
mental.  Rocks  which  like  granite  or  crystalline  limestone  are  made  up 
wholly  of  crystalline  grains  are  called  crystalline-granular  or  granular- 
crystalline  rocks.  The  term  micro-crystalline  and  crypto-crystalline  are 
often  applied  to  rocks  in  which  the  individual  particles  are  too  small  to 
be  readily  distinguished  by  the  unaided  eye.  Such  rocks  are  sometimes 
called  compact,  a  term  which  is  also  applied  to  fragmental  rocks  of  simi- 
lar texture. 

Curb.  A  flat  piece  of  stone  placed  vertically,  bounding  the  street  edges  of 
sidewalks. 

Diabase.  An  eruptive  rock  composed  essentially  of  a  plagioclase  feldspar  and 
augite.  (See  p.  228.) 


APPENDIX    V.  433 


Dikes  (or  dykes).  Masses  of  igneous  rocks  which  have  been  forced  up  from 
below  in  a  molten  condition  to  fill  fractures  or  fissures  in  the  earth's 
crust.  Such  are  also  called  trap-rocks.  The  diabases  and  a  variety  of 
eruptive  rocks  frequently  occur  in  the  form  of  dikes. 

Diorite.  An  eruptive  rock  composed  essentially  of  a  plagioclase,  feldspar  and 
hornblende.  (See  p.  239.) 

Dip.  The  slope  or  pitch  of  the  strata,  or  the  angle  which  the  layers  make  with 
the  plane  of  the  horizon. 

Dolomite.  A  stone  composed  of  mixed  calcium  and  magnesium  carbonates. 
(See  p.  83.) 

A  "Dry."  A  natural  seam  usually  invisible  when  the  rock  is  freshly  quarried, 
but  which  is  brought  out  on  exposure  to  weather  or  sometimes  during 
the  process  of  cutting.  A  very  serious  defect  in  many  stones. 

Escarpment.     A  nearly  vertical  natural  face  of  rock  or  ledge. 

Feldspathic.     Containing  feldspar. 

Ferruginous.     Containing  iron  oxides. 

Fibrous.  Having  a  structure  as  though  made  up  of  bundles  of  distinct  fibres. 
This  structure  is  not  found  in  any  building  stone,  but  is  common  in  some 
forms  of  gypsum  and  of  calcite,  which  are  used  for  making  small  orna- 
ments. 

Flagstone.  Any  kind  of  a  stone  which  separates  naturally  into  thin  tabular 
plates  suitable  for  pavements  and  curbing.  Especially  applicable  to 
sandstones  and  schists. 

Flint.  Quartz  in  any  kind  of  rock  is  commonly  known  to  quarrymen  as  flint. 
True  flint  is  amorphous  silica,  occurring  in  nodular  form  in  chalk  beds. 

Foliated  or  schistose.  Terms  applied  to  rocks  which,  like  gneiss  and  schist, 
have  their  constituents  arranged  in  more  or  less  definite  nearly  parallel 
planes. 

Fragmental  or  clastic.  Terms  which  are  applied  to  rocks  composed  of  frag- 
ments, like  ordinary  sandstone.  When  the  fragments  are  the  size  of  a 
pea  or  larger,  and  rounded  in  form,  the  structure  is  called  conglomerated, 
or  if  the  particles  are  angular,  brecdated. 

Freestone.  This  is  a  term  which  has  been  applied  to  stones  that  work  freely 
in  any  direction.  Especially  applied  to  sandstones  and  limestones.  A 
term  of  no  special  value,  as  it  is  too  indefinite. 

Gneiss.  A  rock  of  the  composition  of  granite  but  in  which  the  ingredients  are 
arranged  in  more  or  less  parallel  layers.  (See  p.  244.) 

Gneissoid*     Like  gneiss. 

Grain.     The  direction  in  a  rock  at  right  angles  with  the  rift.     (See  p.  39.) 

Granite.  A  rock  consisting  of  quartz,  orthoclase,  and  mica  or  other  accessory 
minerals.  In  the  stone-cutter's  nomenclature  no  distinction  is  made 


434  APPENDIX    V. 


between  the  varieties  ;  all  stones  which  are  hard,  granular,  and  crystal- 
lized are  called  granite.  (See  p.  175.) 

Granitoid.     Thoroughly  crystalline  and  massive,  like  granite. 

Granular.  A  term  applied  to  rocks  composed  of  distinct  grains,  whether  frag- 
mental  and  water  worn  or  crystalline. 

Greenstone  or  Griinstein.  A  term  formerly  used  to  designate  certain  basic 
eruptive  rocks  occurring  in  the  form  of  dikes.  Through  mistaken 
notions  regarding  their  true  nature  and  from  a  general  similarity  in  their 
appearance  the  name  was  made  to  include  a  variety  of  compact,  dark- 
greenish  or  nearly  black  rocks,  which  microscopic  examination  has  shown 
to  be  principally  diabase  and  diorite. 

Grit.     Any  sharp,  gritty  sandstone  or  schist  used  as  a  whetstone  or  hone. 

Grub-saw.  A  saw  made  from  a  notched  blade  of  thin  iron,  and  provided  with 
a  wooden  back.  Used  with  sand  for  sawing  stone  by  hand  power.  (See 
Plate  xi.) 

Guys.  Ropes  or  chains  used  to  prevent  anything  from  swinging  or  moving 
about. 

Hackly  fracture.  A  term  applied  when  the  surfaces  of  a  fracture  are  rough 
and  jagged. 

Joints.  Divisional  planes  which  divide  the  rock  in  the  quarry  into  natural 
blocks.  There  are  usually  two  or  three  nearly  parallel  series  called  by 
quarrymen  end  joints,  back  joints,  and  bottom  joints,  according  to  their 
position.  (See  p.  316.) 

Ledge.     Any  natural  solid  body  of  rock. 

Lewis  hole.  The  Lewis  *  hole  consists  of  a  series  of  two  or  more  holes  drilled 
as  closely  together  as  possible,  and  then  connected  by  knocking  out  the 
thin  partition  between  them,  forming  thus  one  wide  hole,  having  its 
greatest  diameter  in  a  plane  with  the  desired  rift.  Blasts  from  such 
holes  are  wedge-like  in  their  action,  and  by  means  of  them  larger  and 
better-shaped  blocks  can  be  taken  out  than  would  otherwise  be  possible. 
This  style  of  hole  is  saidf  to  have  been  devised  by  a  Mr.  Joseph  Rich- 
ards, of  Quincy,  though  at  about  what  date  we  are  not  informed.  This 
same  gentleman  was  also  the  inventor  of  the  bush  hammer,  which,  how- 
ever, when  first  patented,  about  1831,  consisted  of  a  solid  piece,  instead 
of  several  pieces  bolted  together  as  now. 

Limestone.  Under  this  term  almost  all  the  calcareous  quarried  rocks,  whether 
fragmental  or  crystalline,  are  classified.  (See  p.  78.) 

Liver  rock.     This  term  is  applied  to  that  variety  of  the  Ohio  sandstone  which 

*  This  word  is  spelled  by  some  Louis. 

f  Potter's  History  of  Quincy,  Massachusetts. 


APPENDIX    V.  435 


breaks  or  cuts  as  readily  in  one  direction  as  in  another.     In  other  words, 

the  working  of  the  stone  is  not  affected  by  stratification. 
Lyonaise  marble.    A  local  term  applied  to  marbles  which  are  composed  of  a 

mixture  of  red  and  white  colors,  as  those  of  Mallet's  Bay,  Vermont. 
Marble.    Any  limestone  or  dolomite  capable  of  being  polished  and  suited  for 

ornamental  work. 
Massive ;  unstratified.     Having  no  definite  arrangement  in  layers  or  strata, 

but  the  various  ingredients  being  thoroughly  commingled,  as  in  granite 

and  diabase. 
Nigger  head,     (i)  The  black  concretionary  nodules  found  in  granite  ; 

(2)  Any  hard,  dark,  colored  rock  weathering  out  into  rounded  nodules 
or  bowlders  ; 

(3)  Slaty  rock  associated  with  sandstone.     A  quarryman's  term. 
Oolite.     A  stone  composed  of  small  globules  resembling  the  roe  of  a  fish. 
Ophiocalcite,  ophiolite,  or  ophite.    A  mixture  of  serpentine  and  limestone  or 

dolomite.     (See  p.  53.) 

Peroh.  In  Philadelphia,  22  cubic  feet  are  called  a  perch.  A  perch  of  masonry, 
contains  24!  cubic  feet,  16^  x  if  x  I.  It  is  usually  taken  at  25  cubic  feet. 
The  term  is  falling  into  disuse. 

Plucky.  A  term  often  used  by  stone-cutters  to  designate  stones  which  under 
the  chisel  break  away  in  irregularly  conchoidal  chips,  and  which  are 
therefore  difficult  to  trim  to  a  line  or  to  bring  to  a  perfect  surface.  Com- 
mon in  compact  and  impure  limestones. 

Porpjjyry.  Any  stone  composed  of  an  extremely  fine  ground  mass  in  which 
larger  crystals  are  developed.  (See  p.  217.) 

Porphyritic.  When  a  rock  consists  of  a  compact  or  fine  and  evenly  crystal- 
line groundmass,  throughout  which  are  scattered  larger  crystals,  usually 
of  feldspar,  the  structure  is  said  to  be  porphyritic.  This  structure  is 
quite  common  in  granite,  but  is  not  particularly  noticeable,  owing  to 
the  slight  contrast  in  color  between  the  larger  crystals  and  the  finer 
groundmass.  It  is  most  noticeable  in  such  rocks  as  the  felsites,  in 
which,  as  is  the  case  with  some  of  the  "porphyries"  of  eastern  Massa- 
chusetts, the  groundmass  is  exceedingly  dense  and  compact  and  of  a 
black  or  red  color,  while  the  large  feldspar  crystals  are  white  and  stand 
out  in  very  marked  contrast.  This  structure  is  so  striking  in  appearance 
that  rocks  possessing  it  in  any  marked  degree  are  popularly  called  por- 
phyries whatever  may  be  their  mineral  composition.  The  term  porphyry 
is  said  to  have  been  originally  applied  to  certain  kinds  of  igneous  rocks 
of  a  reddish  or  purple  color,  such  as  the  celebrated  red  porphyry  or 
"roseo  antico"  of  Egypt.  The  word  is  now  used  by  the  best  author- 


APPENDIX    V. 


ities  almost  wholly  in  its  adjective  sense,  since  any  rock  may  possess 
this  structure  whatever  its  origin  or  composition  may  be.* 

Putty  powder,  or  polishing  putty,  is  a  fine  whitish  powder,  consisting  in  the 
commercial  form  of  about  equal  parts  oxide  of  tin  and  lead.  Used  in 
polishing  stone  and  glass. 

Quarry.     Any  opening  in  a  ledge  for  taking  out  stone. 

Quarry  Water.  All  rocks  when  first  taken  from  the  quarry  contain  more  or 
less  water,  which  evaporates  on  exposure,  leaving  the  stone  considerably 
harder.  In  sandstones  this  quarry  water  is  considered  by  Newberry  to 
be  a  solution  of  silica  ("  Report  of  Judges,"  Group  i.  p.  127).  Its  com- 
position probably  varies  greatly  in  different,  classes  of  rocks.  See 

P.  363- 

Rhyclite.  A  post-Tertiary  volcanic  rock  of  the  composition  of  granite.  See 
p.  221. 

Rift.  The  direction  in  a  rock  parallel  to  the  lamination  or  foliation,  and  along 
which  it  splits  with  greatest  ease. 

Rubberstone.  A  sharp-gritted  Ohio  or  Indiana  sandstone  used  for  sharpening 
shoe-knives  ;  also  called  a  shoe-stone. 

Rubble  masonry.     Rough,  unsquared  stone  laid  in  irregular  courses. 

Saccharoidal.  Having  a  grain  and  structure  like  that  of  loaf  sugar.  Common 
in  crystalline  limestone. 

Salt  veins.  A  term  applied  by  the  quarrymen  to  the  coarse  granite  veins  from 
2  inches  to  2  or  more  feet  thick,  and  which  are  found  intersecting  gran- 
ites and  older  crystalline  rocks. 

Scab.  A  local  term  used  in  certain  sandstone  quarries  in  Iowa.  The  stone  is 
very  massive  and  is  broken  from  the  quarry  in  irregular  lumps  by  blast- 
ing. These  lumps  are  then  trimmed  down  to  a  shape  approximately 
rectangular  by  means  of  heavy  picks.  This  process  is  denominated 
scabbing. 

Sap.  The  term  originated  from  imagined  analogy  between  the  decomposed 
layer  and  the  sap  wood  of  trees.  A  term  applied  to  the  stained  and 
worthless  portions  of  the  stone  extending  inward  from  the  joint. 

Sculp.  To  sculp  slate  is  to  break  up  the  large  blocks  into  long  slabs,  suitable 
to  split. 

Segregated.  A  term  applied  to  the  veins  and  nodular  masses  of  finer  or 
coarser  texture  that  have  formed  in  granite  and  other  crystalline  rocks  ; 
as  for  example,  the  black  patches  in  granite. 

Serpentine.     A  rock  composed  of  hydrous  magnesia  silicate.     (See  p.  53.) 

Shell  limestone.     Rock  composed  of  consolidated  shells. 

*  Hull,  "  Building  and  Ornamental  Stones,"  p.  75. 


APPENDIX    V.  437 


Siliceous.     Containing  silica. 

Spalls.  This  is  a  term  which  is  used  quite  generally  by  stone-cutters  to  denote 
the  chips  and  other  waste  material  cut  from  a  block  in  process  of  dress- 
ing. 

Spider-web.  A  term  applied  to  the  wavy  lines  in  the  Ohio  sandstones,  and 
which  are  caused  by  stains  of  iron  oxide.  Frequently  seen  in  sawed 
stones,  especially  where  the  lamination  is  slightly  oblique  or  irregular. 
It  is  very  like  the  grain  of  wood  which  shows  in  a  planed  board. 
(See  p.  277.) 

Split  rock.  This  term  applies  to  those  rocks  possessing  tabular  structure,  or 
which  cleave  easily  in  the  lines  of  lamination,  and  are  consequently 
applicable  to  the  preparation  of  flagging  and  for  curbstones. 

Stalactite  or  Stalagmite  marble.  This  is  a  marble  which  is  formed  by  the 
deposit  of  lime  carbonates  from  waters  percolating  into  cavities  or  caves. 

Strata.     Layers  or  beds  of  rock  of  the  same  kind  lying  one  upon  another. 

Stratified;  bedded.  Composed  of  layers  or  beds  lying  parallel  to  one  another, 
as  is  so  frequently  seen  in  sandstone  and  limestone.  When  the  strata 
are  fine  and  leaf-like  the  structure  is  called  laminated  or  shaly. 

Streaked.  Having  some  of  the  mineral  constituents  so  arranged  as  to  give 
the  rock  a  striped  or  streaked  appearance.  In  the  eruptive  rocks  this 
structure  is  often  produced  by  the  flowing  of  the  mass  in  a  partially 
cooled  condition.  It  is  best  seen  in  obsidian,  rhyolite  and  quartz  por- 
phyries. 

Stock.     The  useful  rock  taken  from  a  quarry. 

Strike.  The  direction  in  strata  at  right  angles  to  the  dip,  or  the  course  of  a 
horizontal  line  on  the  surface  of  inclined  beds. 

Syenite.  A  granular  massive  rock  with  the  structure  of  a  granite,  but  con- 
taining no  quartz.  (See  p.  223.) 

Trachyte.  A  post-Tertiary  volcanic  rock  of  the  composition  of  syenite.  (See 
p.  226.) 

Trap  or  trap-rock.  (See  Dikes  and  Greenstone.)  The  name  applies  to  the 
manner  in  which  a  rock  occurs,  and  is  not  itself  a  name  of  specific 
value. 

Travertine.  A  calcareous  rock  deposited  by  water  from  solution,  and  which 
was  used  as  a  building  stone  in  Rome.  (See  text,  p.  116.) 

Verde  antique.  Antique  green.  A  rock  composed  of  a  mixture  of  serpentine 
and  limestone.  (See  p.  54.) 

Vitreous  or  glassy.  These  terms  are  applied  to  rocks  that  have  a  structure 
like  glass,  as  obsidian.  Rocks  of  this  type  are  at  present  little  used  for 
any  kind  of  work. 


INDEX. 


Aberdeen  granite,  216 

Abrasion  of  stone  by  wind-blown 
sand,  357 

Absorption,  ratio  of,  385 

Absorption  tests,  value  of,  386 

Absorption  of  water  by  sandstone,  371 

Accessory  minerals  of  rocks,  17 

Acervularia  davidsoni,  92 

Acid  gases,  effects  on  sandstone,  372 

Acid  gloss  surface,  334 

Adaptability  of  liparites  for  construc- 
tion, 221 

Addison,  Maine,  diabase,  231 

Africa,  marbles  of,  152 

Agalmatolite,  167 

Aggregation,  state  of,  38 

Alabama,  limestones  in,  122 

Alabama,  marble  in,  84 

Alabama,  resources  of,  15 

Alabama,  sandstone  of,  249 

Alabaster,  Italy,  77 

Alabaster,  method  of  making  opaque, 
78 

Alabaster,  Spain,  78 

Alexander  column,  cause  of  disintegra- 
tion, 366 

Algeria,  marbles  of,  152 

Algerian  onyx,  120 

American  marbles,  defects  in,  383 

Amherst  quarries,  section  of,  277 

Amianthus,  54 

Amphibole,  properties  of,  24 

Andesites,  the,  243 

Andesites,  uses  of,  243 

Antique  porphyry,  229 

Aplit,  179 

Aragonite,  properties  of,  26 


Argillaceous  fragmental  rocks,  293 

Argillite,  Montana,  169 

Arizona,  onyx  of,  118 

Arizona,  resources  of,  15 

Arizona,  sandstone  of,  249 

Arkansas,  sandstone  of,  250 

Arkansas,  slates  of,  299 

Arkansas,  syenite  of,  225 

Arkansas,  limestones  of,  122 

Arkansas,  marbles  of,  84 

Arkansas,  soapstone  of,  47 

Arkansas,  resources,  15 

Arkose,  249 

Artificial  heat,  effect  on  stone,  356 

Atmosphere,  chemical  action  of,  360 

Atmosphere,  composition  of,  359 

Aughey,  Prof.,  quoted,  140 

Ausable  granite,  see  Norite,  236 

Austria,  marbles  of,  160 

Ax  or  pean  hammer,  348 

Azurite,  see  Malachite,  170 

Ax-hammered  face,  333 

Back  joints,  317 

Barcena,  M.  M.,  quoted,  119 

Bardiglio  marble,  164 

Barre,  granite  of,  211 

Basalt,  239 

Basalt,  California,  239 

Bastard  granite,  177 

Bastard  granite,  see  Gneiss,  244 

Batchen,  J.  S.  F.,  quoted,  264 

Bath  oolite,  155 

Bay  of  Fundy  granite,  215 

Bedding  in  stone,  importance  of,  314 

Bedford  oolite,  129 

Belgian  black  marble,  157 

Belgium,  marbles  of,  157 

439 


440 


INDEX. 


Berea  grit  in  Ohio,  275 
Berea  sandstone,  qualities  for  grind- 
stones, 276 

Berea  sandstone,  mellowing  of,  276 
Bermuda,  limestones  of,  150 
Bermuda  limestone,  method  of  quarry- 
ing, 150 

Bibliography   of   works    on    building- 
stone,  428 

Bituminous   dolomite,   Cook  County, 
.      126 

Black  granite,  see  Diabase,  232 
Black  and  gold  marble,  165 
Black  marble,  Italian,  165 
Black  marble  of  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y.,  28 
Black  marble  of  Isle  La  Motte,  113 
Black  marble  of  Italy,  163 
Bluestone  of  New  York  State,  271 
Bohme,  Dr.,   experiments   on   stone, 

39° 

Bonney,  T.  G.,  referred  to,  73 
Boston  Court   House,   date   of    erec- 
tion, 2 

Bottom  joints,  317 
Bougard  marble,  160 
Bowlders  on  Quincy  Commons,  2 
Brainard,  Prof.,  quoted,  105 
Branner,    Prof.    J.    C.,    quoted,    225, 

250 

Brard's  process  of  testing  stone,  387 
Breccia,  248 
Breccia  marble,  92,  162 
Breccia  marble,  Italian,  165 
British  Columbia,  granite  of,  214 
British  Columbia,  marbles  of,  151 
British  Columbia,  sandstones  of,  289 
Broadhead,  Prof.,  quoted,  200 
Brocatelle  marble,  159,  165 
Brocatelle,  origin  of  name,  160 
Building-stone,  works  on,  428 
Bunker   Hill  Monument,  swaying  of, 

353 

Bush-hammer,  348 
Bush-hammered  finish,  334 
Caen  stone,  159 

Caffal  process  of  preserving  stone,  400 
Calcite,  properties  of,  25 
Calc  sinter  defined,  80 
California,  basalt  of,  239 
California,  granites  of,  180 
California,  liparite  of,  223 
California,  marbles  of,  85 


California,  onyx  marble  of,  117 
California,  quartz  diorite  of,  242 
California,  resources  of,  15 
California,  sandstone  of,  251 
California,  slates  of,  299 
California,  serpentine  of,  57 
California,  soapstone  of,  47 
Canada,  granites  of,  214 
Canada,  marbles  of,  151 
Canada,  serpentine  of,  72 
Canada,  slates  of,  312 
Carbonic  acid  in  atmosphere,  359 
Carlisle  stone,  290 
Catlinite  or  Indian  pipestone,  168 
Cavities  in  quartz,  effects  of,  367 
Chalk  defined,  82 
Chamberlain,  T.  C.,  quoted,  213 
Channelling  machine,  321,  336 
Channelling  machine,  capacity  of,  339 
Channelling  machine,  arrangement  of 

drills,  339 

Chateau,  quoted,  242 
Chauvenet,   Prof.,  method  of   testing 

stone,  393 
Chemical    action    of    atmosphere    on 

stone,  360 

Chemical  agencies  affecting  rocks,  359 
Chemical  characters  of  rocks,  41 
Chemical     composition    of     building- 
stone,  tables,  414 

Chemical  composition  of  liparite,  222 
Chelmsford,  early  quarries,  2 
Chilled   iron,   used  in  stone   sawing, 

345 

Chisel  or  drove,  349 
Chisels  used  in  stone-working,  349 
Chlorite,  properties  of,  28 
Chloritic  schists,  245 
Chrysotile,  54 
Clay  slates,  293 

Clay  slate,  early  quarrying  of,  I 
Classification  of  rocks,  42 
Coefficient  of  expansion  of  minerals, 

366 

Cold,  effect  of,  on  stone,  353 
Color  of  rocks,  cause  of,  40 
Colorado,  diorite  of,  242 
Colorado,  granites  of,  182 
Colorado,  limestones  of,  122- 
Colorado,  marbles  of,  88 
Colorado,  resources  of,  15 
Colorado,  sandstones  of,  254 


INDEX. 


441 


Colorado,  slate  of,  299 

Collett,  Prof.,  quoted,  260 

Compact  common  limestone  defined, 

80 

Comparative  durability  of  stones,  380 
Composition  of  atmosphere,  359 
Composition  of  building-stones,  tables, 

414 
Composition  and  origin  of  porphyry, 

217 

Concord  granites,  202 
Concretionary  nodules  in  granite,  193 
Conglomerate,  248 

Conglomerate  of  Roxbury,  Mass.,  263 
Connecticut,  diabase  of,  231 
Connecticut,  granites  and  gneisses  of, 

182 

Connecticut,  marbles  of,  89 
Connecticut,  resources  of ,  15 
Connecticut,  sandstone  of,  257 
Connecticut,  serpentine  of,  58 
Connecticut,  trap  ridges  in,  230 
Conover,  Prof.,  quoted,  123 
Connemara  green  serpentine,  74 
Cook,  Prof.,  quoted,  269 
Coquina,  123 
Coral  rock  defined,  82 
Coral  shell  marble,  143 
Corsica,  kugel  diorite  of,  241 
Cost  of  cutting  stone,  table,  422 
Crahdall,  the,  348 
Crinoidal  limestones  defined,  8r 
Crosby,  Prof.  W.  O.,  quoted,  319 
Crushed  steel  for  stone-sawing,  345 
Crushing  strength   of  building-stone, 

tables,  404 

Crystalline  limestone;  marble,  80 
Cubes   for  testing  strength    of  stone, 

preparation  of,  386 
Curly  slates,  297 
Cutting  and   dressing  stone,  methods 

of,  323 
Dacite,  243 
Dakota,  slate  of,  299 
Dana,  J.  D.,  quoted,  170,  230 
Deacon  John  Phillips,  house  of,  I 
Dedham  pink  granite,  197 
Defects  in  marbles,  382 
Delaware,  gneisses  of,  183 
Delaware,  marble  of,  89 
Delaware,  resources  of,  15 
Delaware,  serpentine  of,  60 


Delesse,  referred  to,  121 

Density  and  hardness  of  stone,  32 

Deoxidation,  effect  on  stone,  362 

Diabase,  228 

Diabase,  Connecticut,  231 

Diabase  dikes  and  sheets,  distribution 
of,  in  the  eastern  U.  S.,  229 

Diabase,  Maine,  231 

Diabase,  Massachusetts/232 

Diabase,  New  Jersey,  232 

Diabase,  Missouri,  232  •« 

Diabase,  Pennsylvania,  234 

Diabase,  strength  of,  235 

Diabase,  Virginia,  234 

Diamond  channelling  machine,  340 

D'Invilliers,  E.  V.,  quoted,  280 

Diorites  and  kersantites,  239 

Diorite,  Colorado,  242 

Diorite,  composition  of,  240 

Diorite,  derivation  of  name,  239 

Diorite,  New  Hampshire,  241 

Diorite,  poor  working  qualities  of,  240 

Diorite,  Texas,  241 

Diorite,  uses  of,  240 

Dip  joints,  316 

Discoloration  of  stone  through  absorp- 
tion of  water,  396 

Distribution  of  building-stone  in  the 
U.  S.,  10 

Dix  Island  granite,  190 

Dolomite  defined,  83 

Dolomitic  limestones  defined,  82 

Dolomites  and  limestones,  compara- 
tive durability,  380 

Dolomite  marble,  Maryland,  92 

Dolomite  marble,  Lee,  Massachusetts, 

•   94 

Dolomite,  origin  of  name,  83 

Dolomite,  properties  of,  26 

Dolomite,  weathering  properties  of, 
368 

Dolomite,  Westchester,  New  York,  97 

Dolomite,  Will  County,  qualities  of, 
125 

Dorset,  Vermont,  marble  quarries  at, 
107 

Dressing  stone,  methods,  323 

Dressing  stone  at  Quincy,  old  method, 

,325 

Drills  and  drilling  machines,  335 

Duluth  granite,  see  Gabbro,  236 

Durability  of  Egyptian  granite,  376 


442 


INDEX. 


Durability  of  stone  affected  by  manner 

of  dressing,  397 

Diamond  gadding  machine,  341 
East  Blue  Hill  granite,  187 
Eclipse  rock  drill,  335 
Effects  of  freezing  on  stone,  tests  of, 

387 

Efflorescence  on  stone,  397 

Egleston,  Prof.  T.,  quoted,  357 

Egyptian  granite,  214 

Egyptian  onyx,  120 

Egyptian  obelisk,  disintegration  of, 
366 

Egyptian  obelisk,  method  of  preserva- 
tion, 400 

Elseolite  syenite,  Arkansas,  225 

Elaeolite  syenite,  Maine,  226 

Eldridge,  George  H.,  quoted,  254 

Emerson,  Prof.  B.  K.,  quoted,  242 

End  joints,  316 

England,  granite  of,  216 

England,  gypsum  (alabaster)  of,  77 

England,  marbles  of,  154 

England,  serpentine  of,  72 

Eolian  marble,  106 

Eozoon  canadense,  66 

Epidote  granite,  197 

Epidote,  properties  of,  28 

Essential  minerals  of  rocks,  17 

Euclid  bluestone,  278 

Europe,  marbles  of,  157 

Exfoliation  of  stone  caused  by  sun's 
heat,  354 

Face-hammer,  347 

Feldspars,  the,  properties  of,  21 

Feldspar  porphyry,  218 

Ferrous  carbonate  in  sandstone,  361 

Field,  Dr.,  quoted,  3 

Fine  sand  finish,  334 

Finland,  stone-quarrying  in,  326 

Finish,  kinds  of,  333 

Fire-resisting  properties  of  stone,  356 

First  stone  building  in  Boston,  i 

First  stones  quarried  in  Massachusetts, 
i 

Florida,  limestones  of,  123 

Florida,  resources  of,  15 

Formosa  marble,  160 

Foreign  sandstones,  287 

Foreign  serpentine,  72 

Foreign  slates,  312 

Fort  Marion,  construction  of,  123 


Fossil  coral,  acervularia  davidsoni,  169 

Fossiliferous  limestones  defined,  81 

Fossiliferous  stones  to  be  avoided,  381 

Fossil  wood,  173 

Fourche  Mountain  syenites,  225 

Fox  Island  granite,   188 

Fragmental  rocks,  245 

Frankfort  Granite  Co.  began  work,  5 

France,  marbles,  158 

Frazer,  Persifer,  quoted,  69,  307 

Freezing  stone,  effects  of,  355 

Freezing  stone,  method  of,  393 

Freestone,  249 

Freezing  water,  effects  on  stone,  387 

Freezing  of  stone,  test  of  effects,  287 

Friction,  effects  of,  on  stone,  357 

Frost,  effect  of,  on  limestones,  370 

Frost,  effect  of,  on  sandstone,  371 

Fusulina  limestone,  132 

Fusulina  limestone,  Nebraska,  140 

Gabbro,  235 

Gabbro,  Maryland,  235 

Gabbro,  Minnesota,  235 

Gadding,  322 

Gadding  and  gadding  machines,  340 

Garnet,  properties  of,  28 

Geikie,  Prof.  A.,  quoted,  369 

Genth,  F.  A.,  quoted,  60 

Geological  record,  table,  43,  44 

Georgia,  granites  of,  184 

Georgia,  marble  of,  89 

Georgia,  resources  of,  15 

Georgia,  sandstone  of,  259 

Georgia,  slate  of,  299 

German  marbles,  160 

Gettysburg  granite,  see  Diabase,  234 

Giallo  Antico  marble,  153 

Gillmore,  Gen.  Q.  A.,  on  ratio  of  in- 
crease in  strength  for  cubes  of  dif- 
ferent sizes,  385 

Glaciated  area  outlined,  377 

Glossary  of  terms,  431 

Gloucester,  Mass.,  early  quarries,  3 

Gloucester  granites,  196 

Gneiss,  Connecticut,  182 

Gneiss,  distinction  from  granite,  177 

Gneiss,  Delaware,  183 

Gneiss,  Maryland,  194 

Gneiss,  Massachusetts,  197 

Gneiss,  New  Hampshire,  203 

Gneiss,  New  Jersey,  203 

Gneiss,  origin  of  name,  244 


INDEX. 


443 


Gneiss,  Pennsylvania,  208 

Gneiss,  Vermont,  210 

Gneiss,  Virginia,  212 

Gneisses,  use  of,  244 

Goode,  G.  B.,  quoted,  119 

Grain  of  rocks,  39 

Granites  and  gneisses,  175 

Granite,  British  Columbia,  214 

Granite,  California,  180 

Granite,  Canada,  214 

Granite,  Colorado,  182 

Granite,  Connecticut,  182 

Granite,  England,  216 

Granite,  Egyptian,  214 

Granite,  Georgia,  184 

Granite,  Maine,  184 

Granite,  Maryland,  193 

Granite,  Massachusetts,  194 

Granite,  Minnesota,  198 

Granite,  Missouri,  199 

Granite,  Montana,  201 

Granite,  New  Brunswick,  215 

Granite,  New  Hampshire,  2OI 

Granite,  New  Jersey,  203 

Granite,  New  York,  204 

Granite,  North  Carolina,  205 

Granite,  Nova  Scotia,  216 

Granite,  Rhode  Island,  208 

Granite,  Scotland,  216 

Granite,  South  Carolina,  209 

Granite,  Tennessee,  209 

Granite,  Texas,  210 

Granite,  Utah,  210 

Granite,  Vermont,  210 

Granite,  Virginia,  211 

Granite,  Wisconsin,  213 

Granite,  Wyoming,  213 

Granite,  composition  and  properties, 

175 

Granite,  dark  patches  in,  192 
Granite,  derivation  of  name,  175 
Granite,  geological  age,  177 
Granite,  mode  of  occurrence,  177 
Granite,  not  a  fire-proof  material,  366 
Granite-quarrying,  320 
Granite,  strength  of,  tables,  404 
Granite,  uses  of,  179 
Granite,  weight  of,  tables,  404 
Granite,  Woodstock,  193 
Granite-working,  tools  used,  328 
Granite,  varieties  of,  178 
Gramtell,  178 


Granito  di  Levanto,  75 

Graywacke,  249 

Great  Britain,  slates  of,  312 

Greece,  marbles  of,  166 

Greisen,  179 

Grinding  stone,  329 

Grinding  and  polishing  machines,  343 

Grindstone  Island,  granite  of,  204 

Griotte  marble,  158 

Ground-mass,  defined,  217 

Growing  organisms,  effect  on  stone, 
358 

Grub  saw,  350 

Gypsum,  alabaster,  75 

Gypsum,  composition  and  uses  of,  75 

Gypsum,  England,  77 

Gypsum,  Iowa,  used  as  a  building- 
stone,  76 

Gypsum,  Italy,  77 

Gypsum,  localities  in  the  U.  S.,  76 

Gypsum,  properties  of,  26 

Gypsum,    weathering    properties    of, 

373 

Haddam  Neck,  Conn.,  early  quarry- 
ing. 3 

Hague,  Arnold,  quoted,  366 

Hall,  Prof.  James,  quoted,  358 

Hall,  Prof.  James,  on  method  of  dress- 
ing argillaceous  limestones,  398 

Hall,  Prof.  James,  on  rock  weather- 
ing, 370 

Hallowell  granite,  190 

Hallowell,  Maine,  first  quarries  in,  4 

Hammering  stone,  effects  of,  397 

Hand-drill,  349 

Hand-hammer,  348 

Hand-implements  used  in  stone-work- 
ing, 347 

Hardness  of  rocks,  33 

Hawes,  Dr.  G.  W.,   quoted,  202,  224, 

293 

Heat  and  cold,  effects  of,  on  stone,  353 
Heliotrope  or  bloodstone,  173 
Hematite,  properties  of,  32 
Hindostan  stone,  261 
Historical  notes,  I 
Hitchcock,  Prof.,  quoted,  108 
Hitchcock,  C.  H.,  quoted,  201 
Hornblende  andesite,  243 
Hornblende  schist,  245 
Houghton,      Mich.,      Mining  -  school 

building,  265 


444 


INDEX. 


House  of   Parliament,    disintegration 

of  stone,  352 

Hull,  Dr.  Edward,  quoted,  217 
Hunt,  T.  Sterry,  on  origin  of  serpen- 
tine, 54 
Hummelstown    quarries,    section    of, 

280 

Hummelstown,    Pennsylvania,    sand- 
stone, 280 

Hurricane  Island  granite,  189 
Hydraulic  limestone,  defined,  80 
Hydrochloric     acid     in     atmosphere, 

359 

Hypersthene  andesite,  273 
Idaho,  marble  of,  90 
Idaho,  resources  of,  15 
Idaho,  sandstones  of,  260 
Illinois,  limestones  of,  123 
Illinois,  resources  of,  15 
Illinois,  sandstones  of,  260 
Improved  quarry  bar,  336 
Indiana,  limestones  of,  128 
Indiana,  resources  of,  15 
Indiana,  sandstones  of,  260 
Indian  pipestone,  see  Catlinite,  168 
Indian  Territory,  resources  of,  15 
Induration  of  stone  on  exposure,  363 
Ingersoll  standard  gadder,  342 
Iowa,  limestones  of,  130 
Iowa,  marble  of,  90 
Iowa,  resources  of,  15 
Iowa,  sandstones  of,  261 
Irish  black  marble,  156 
Irish  marbles,  156 
Ireland,  serpentine  of,  73 
Iron  in  contact  with  stone,  397 
Iron  pyrite,  effect  of,  on  stone,  29-31 
Iron  pyrites,  properties  of,  29 
Isle  la  Motte  marble,  113 
Italian  marbles,  price-list  of,  423 
Italy,  gypsum  and  alabaster  in,  77 
Italy,  marbles  of,  163 
Italy,  serpentines  of,  74 
Italy,  travertine  of,  121 
Jackson,  Prof.  J.  W.,  quoted,  85-251 
Jade,  see  Nephrite,  171 
Jasper,  173 
Johnson,  T.  H.,  experiments  on  stone, 

392 

i  oints,  causes  of,  319 
oints  in  rocks,  316 
oints  in  basic  igneous  rocks,  319 


Joints,   importance  of,  in  quarrying, 
3i8 

Julian,  A.  A.,  quoted,  270 

Jumper,  the,  335 

Kansas,  limestones  in,  132 

Kansas,  resources  of,  15 

Kansas,  sandstones  of,  261 

Kennebec  Bridge,  erection  of,  4 

Kentucky,  limestones  in,  134 

Kentucky,  resources  of,  15 

Kentucky,  sandstones  of,  261 

Kersantite,  240 

Kersantite,    Croton    Landing,  N.  Y., 
242 

Kersantite,  derivation  of  name,  243 

Kersantite,  New  Jersey,  242 

Kersantite,  qualities  for  structural  pur- 
poses, 242 

Kersantite,  strength  of,  242 

Keweenaw  Point  sandstone,  264 

Kinds  of  finish  on  stone,  333 

King's  Chapel,  Boston,  date  of  erec- 
tion, 327 

King's  Chapel,  construction  of,  2 
!   King's    Chapel,  method    of    dressing 
stone  for,  327 

Kinnahan,  G.  H.,  quoted,  74,  156 

Kugel  diorite,  240 

Kuhlman's  process  of  preserving  stone, 
402 

Kunz,  G.  F.,  quoted,  76 

Labradorite,  169 

Labradorite  granite,  see  Norite,  236 

L'albatre  calcaire,  121 

Languedoc  marble,  159 

L'Anse  sandstone,  264 

Lapis-lazuli,  170 

Lathes  and  planers,  344 

Laws    relative   to   quarrying    granite 
bowlders,  2' 

Leete's  Island  granite,  183 

Lepanto  marble  in  New  York,  98 

Lewis  hole,  320 

Lewin's  process  of  preserving  stone, 
402 

Limestones,  Alabama,  122 

Limestones,  Arkansas,  122 

Limestones,  Bermuda,  150 

Limestone,  Caen,  159 

Limestones,  Colorado,  122 

Limestone,  Florida,  123 

Limestone,  Illinois,  123 


INDEX. 


445 


Limestone,  Indiana,  128 

Limestone,  Iowa,  130 

Limestones,  Kansas,  132 

Limestones,  Kentucky,  134 

Limestone,  Maine,  135 

Limestone,  Michigan,  135 

Limestone,  Minnesota,  136 

Limestone,  New  York,  141 

Limestone,  North  Carolina,  145 

Limestone,  Ohio,  145 

Limestone,  Nebraska,  140 

Limestone,  Pennsylvania,  147 

Limestone,  Tennessee,  148 

Limestone,  Texas,  148 

Limestone,  Wisconsin,  149 

Limestones  and  dolomites,  composi- 
tion and  origin,  78 

Limestone  and  dolomite,  weathering 
properties  of,  367 

Limestones,  cause  of  color,  79 

Limestones,  geological  age  of,  79 

Limestones,  mode  of  occurrence,  79 

Liparites,  rhyolites,  221 

Liparite,  California,  223 

Liparite,  localities  of,  in  the  U.  S.,  223 

Lisbon  marble,  162 

List  of  important  stone  structures,  425 

Lithographic  limestone,  defined,  So 

Lithographic  limestone,  Indiana,  130 

Lithographic  limestone,  Kentucky,  135 

Lithographic  limestone,  Missouri,  140 

Llangynog  slate,  composition  of,  294 

Louisiana,  resources  of,  15 

Luray  cave  stalagmitic  deposits,  115 

Luxullianite,  179 

Lyonaise  marble,  in 

Machines  and  implements  used  in 
stone-working,  335 

Macroscopic  structure  of  rocks,  33 

Madrepore  marble,  91 

Magnesian  limestone,  defined,  82 

Magnetite,  effects  of  oxidation,  361 

Magnetite,  properties  of,  31 

Maine,  diabase  of,  231 

Maine,  elseolite  syenite  of,  226 

Maine,  first  quarries  opened,  3 

Maine,  granites  of,  184 

Maine,  limestone  of,  135 

Maine,  porphyry  of,  220 

Maine,  resources  of,  15 

Maine,  sandstones  of,  262 

Maine,  serpentine  of,  60 


Maine,  slates  of,  300 

Maine,  soapstone  of,  47 

Malachite  and  azurite,  170 

Mallet,  348 

Mallett's  Bay,  marble  of,  in 

Marble,  definition  of,  83 

Marbles,  Africa,  152 

Marbles,  Algeria,  152 

Marble,  Alabama,  84 

Marble,  Arkansas,  84 

Marble,  Austria,  160 

Marble,  Bardiglio,  164 

Marble,  Belgium,  157 

Marble,  British  Columbia,  151 

Marble,  Canada,  151 

Marble,  California,  85 

Marble,  Colorado,  88 

Marble,  Connecticut,  89 

Marble,  Delaware,  89 

Marble,  England,  154 

Marble,  France,  168 

Marble,  Germany,  160 

Marble,  Greece,  166 

Marble,  Idaho,  90 

Marble,  Iowa,  90 

Marble,  Ireland,  156 

Marble,  Maryland,  92 

Marble,  Massachusetts,  93 

Marble,  Missouri,  94 

Marble,  Montana,  95 

Marble,  Nevada,  95 

Marble,  New  Jersey,  95 

Marble,  New  York,  96 

Marble,  North  Carolina,  99 

Marble,  Pennsylvania,  100 

Marble,  Portugal,  161 

Marble,  Spain,  161 

Marble,  Tennessee,  102 

Marble,  Texas,  104 

Marble,  Utah,  105 

Marble,  Vermont,  105 

Marble,  Virginia,  113 

Marble,  Winooski,  HI 

Marble,  Wyoming,  115 

Marble  beds  at  West  Rutland,  Vt.,  108 

Marble  belt  of  New  England,  105 

Marble,  black  and  gold,  165 

Marble,  brocatelle,  159,  165 

Marble,  Bougard,  160 

Marble,   durability  of,   in   Edinburgh, 

369 
Marble,  durability  of,  in  New  York,  369 


446 


INDEX. 


Marble,  Eolian,  106 

Marbles,  essential  qualities  of,  382 

Marble,  Formosa,  160 

Marble,  French  red,  or  griotte,  158 

Marble,  Georgia,  89 

Marble,  kinds  of,  in  Vermont,  106 

Marble,  Languedoc,  159 

Marble,  Lyonaise,  in 

Marble,  Parian,  166 

Marble,  Portor,  165 

Marble-quarrying,  321 

Marble  quarries,  statistics  of,  116 

Marble  quarries,  early  attempts,  5 

Marble,  ruin,  166 

Marble,  Siena,  164 

Marble,  yellow,  166 

Marmor  Lacedaemonium  viride,  229 

Marquette  sandstone,  264 

Maryland,  gabbro  of,  235 

Maryland,  granites  of,  193 

Maryland,  marble  of,  92 

Maryland,  resources  of,  15 

Maryland,  sandstone  of,  262 

Maryland,  serpentine  in,  60 

Maryland,  slates  of,  301 

Maryland,  soapstone  of,  48 

Massachusetts,  diabase  of,  232 

Massachusetts,  gneisses  of,  197 

Massachusetts,  granites  of,  194 

Massachusetts,  marble  of,  93 

Massachusetts,  porphyry  of,  219 

Massachusetts,  resources  of,  15 

Massachusetts,  sandstone  of,  263 

Massachusetts,  serpentine  of,  62 

Massachusetts,  slate  of,  301 

Massachusetts,  soapstone  of,  48 

Maw,  Mr.  G.,  quoted,  248 

McDonald  stone-cutting  machine.  344, 

>     346 

McGee,  Prof.  W.  J.,  quoted,  131 

Medina,  sandstone  of  New  York  State, 

272 

Mellowing  of  Ohio  sandstone,  360 
Method  of  dressing  stone  as  affecting 

its  durability,  397 
Methods  of  protection  and  preservation 

of  stone,  395 

Methods  of  quarrying  stone,  314 
Methods  of  testing  building-stone,  384 
Methods  of  testing  stone,  392 
Methods  of  testing  stone,  size  of  cube, 

392 


Mexican  onyx,  119 

Micas  the,  properties  of,  22 

Mica  andesite,  243 

Mica  schist,  245 

Michigan,  limestone  in,  135 

Michigan,  resources  of,  15 

Michigan,  sandstone,  264 

Michigan,  slates  of,  302 

Microscopic  structure  of  rocks,  34 

Middlebury,  Vt. ,  marble  quarries,  no 

Milford  pink  granite,  197 

Mineral  of  building-stones,  17 

Mineral  and  chemical  composition  of 

liparite,  222 

Minor  ornamental  stones,  167 
Minnesota,  gabbro  of,  235 
Minnesota,  granites  of,  198 
Minnesota,  limestone  in,  136 
Minnesota,  porphyry  of,  220 
Minnesota,  quartzite  of,  265 
Minnesota,  resources  of,  15 
Minnesota,  sandstones  of,  265 
Minnesota,  slate  of,  303 
Missouri,  diabase  of,  232 
Missouri,  granites  of,  199 
Missouri,  marbles  of,  94 
Missouri,  onyx  marbles  of,  118 
Missouri,  porphyry  of,  220 
Missouri,  resources  of,  15 
Mississippi,  sandstone  of,  266 
Missouri,  sandstones  of,  267 
Modulus  of  elasticity,  391 
Modulus  of  rupture,  391 
Montana,  argillite,  169 
Montana,  granites  of,  2OI 
Montana,  marbles  of,  95 
Montana,  resources  of,  15 
Montana,  sandstone  of,  268 
Montgomery  Co.,  Penna.,  beginnings 

of  quarrying,  6 

Mormon  Temple,  stone  used  in,  210 
Mount  Eolus,  section  of,  107 
Mount  Waldo  granite,  188 
Napoleonite,  240 
National  collections,  referred  to,  160, 

163 

Nebraska,  limestones  of,  140 
Nebraska,  resources  of,  15 
Nebraska,  sandstone  of,  268 
Nephrite  or  jade,  171 
Nero  Antico  di  Prato,  75 
Nevada,  marble  of,  95 


INDEX. 


447 


Nevada,  porphyry  of,  221 

Nevada,  resources  of,  16 

Nevada,  sandstone,  268 

Nevadites,  222 

Newberry,  Prof.  J.  C.,  on  kersantite, 

242 
Newberry,  Prof.  J.  C.,  on  Yule  Creek 

marbles,  88 

Newberry,  Prof.  J.  C.,  quoted,  IOI 
New  Hampshire,  16 
New  Hampshire  gneiss,  203 
New  Hampshire,  diorites  of,  241 
New  Hampshire,  granites  of,  201 
New  Hampshire  porphyry,  220 
New  Hampshire,  slates  of,  305 
New  Hampshire,  soapstone  in,  48 
New  Hampshire,  syenite  of,  224 
New  Jersey,  diabase  of,  232 
New  Jersey,  granites  and  gneisses  of, 

203 

New  Jersey,  kersantite  of,  242 
New  Jersey,  marbles  of,  95 
New  Jersey,  resources  of,  16 
New  Jersey,  sandstone  of,  267 
New  Jersey,  serpentine  of,  63 
New  Jersey,  slates  of,  303 
New  Mexico,  resources  of,  16 
New  Mexico  sandstone,  269 
New  Mexico,  serpentine  of,  64 
New  York,  granites  of,  204 
New  York,  limestones  of,  141 
New  York,  marbles  of,  96 
New  York,  resources  of,  16 
New  York,  sandstones  of,  270 
New  York,  slates  of,  304 
New  York,  serpentine  of,  64 
New  York,  soapstone  of,  49 
New  Brunswick,  granite  of,  215 
New  Brunswick  sandstones,  288 
New  South  Church,  date  of  erection,  2 
Nitric  acid  in  atmosphere,  359 
Norite,  Keeseville,  N.  Y.,  236 
North  Carolina,  granite  of,  205 
North  Carolina,  limestone  of,  145 
North  Carolina,  marble  of,  99 
North  Carolina,  porphyry  of,  220 
North  Carolina,  resources  of,  16 
North  Carolina,  sandstones  of,  274 
North  Carolina,  serpentine  of,  67 
North  Carolina,  soapstone  of,  49 
North  Dakota,  resources  of,  16 
Nova  Scotia  granite,  216 


Nova  Scotia,  trap  ridges  in,  230 

Nova  Scotia  sandstones,  288 

Nummulitic  limestone,  154 

Numidian  marbles,  152 

Obsidian,  172,  222 

Obsidian,  localities  of,  223 

Obsidian,  uses  of,  223 

Ohio,  limestones  of,  145 

Ohio,  resources  of,  16 

Ohio,  sandstones  of,  274 

Oil  as  a  stone  preservative,  399 

Oklahoma,  resources  of,  16 

Old  Hancock  House,  date  of  erection, 

2 

Olivine,  properties  of,  27 
Ontario,  sandstones  of,  287 
Onyx,  Algerian,  120 
Onyx  marbles  or  travertines,  116 
Onyx  marble,  Arizona,  118 
Onyx  marble,  California,  117 
Onyx,  Egyptian,  120 
Onyx,  Mexican,  119 
Onyx  marble,  Missouri,  118 
Oolitic  limestone  defined,  80 
Oolitic  limestone,  Bath,  England,  155 
Oolitic  limestone,  origin  of  name,  80 
Oolitic  limestones,  Kentucky,  134 
Oolitic  limestones,  Indiana,  127 
Ophicalcite,  see  Serpentine,  53 
Ophicalcites,  Italian,  74 
Ophicalcites  of  New  York,  65 
Ophiolite,  origin  of  name,  54 
Oregon,  resources  of,  16 
Oregon,  sandstone  of,  279 
Organisms,  growth  of,  on  stones,  358 
Origin  of  porphyry,  217 
Original  constituents  of  rocks,  18 
Orton,  Prof.,  quoted,  274 
Oxidation,  effects  on  stone,  360 
Owen,  J.  D.,  quoted,  250 
Page,    Mr.    C.    G.,    experiments    on 

stone,  388 

Paint  as  a  stone  preservative,  399 
Palisades,  rocks  of  the,  233 
Paonazza  marble,  153 
Paraffine  as  a  stone  preservative,  400 
Parian  marble,  166 
Parkman  House,  date  of  erection,  2 
Parmazo  marble,  164 
Patent  hammered  finish,  333 
Patent  or  bush  hammer,  348 
Paving-blocks,  sizes  and  prices  of,  233 


448 


INDEX. 


Peach-bottom  slate,  306 

Peale,  Dr.  A.  C.,  quoted,  268 

Pean  hammer,  348 

Pegmatite,  172 

Pegmatite,  described,  178 

Pendulum  machines,  343 

Pennsylvania,  diabase  of,  234 

Pennsylvania,  diorites  of,  241 

Pennsylvania,  granites  and  gneisses  of, 
208 

Pennsylvania,  limestone  of,  147 

Pennsylvania,  marble  of,  100 

Pennsylvania,  sandstone  of,  279 

Pennsylvania,  porphyry  of,  220 

Pennsylvania,  resources  of,  16 

Pennsylvania,  serpentine  of,  67 

Pennsylvania,  slates  of,  306 

Pennsylvania,  soapstone  of,  49 

Peterhead  granite,  216 

Pfaff,  experiments  of,  398 

Philadelphia,  first  stone  used  in,  6 

Philo  Tomlinson,  engaged  in  marble- 
sawing,  345 

Phonolite,  227 

Phonolite,  localities  of,  in  U.  S.,  227 

Phonolites,  utility  of,  227 

Physical  agencies  of  rock  disintegra- 
tion, 353 

Physical  and  chemical  properties  of 
building-stone,  32 

Pick,  349 

Pinite,  167 

Pink  marble  of  North  Carolina,  99 

Pink  marble  of  Georgia,  89 

Pisolite  defined,  80 

Pitching  chisel,  349 

Pitchstone,  222 

Pittsford,  Vermont,  quarries  of,  109 

Plain  quarry-frame,  343 

Planing  stone,  machine  used,  344 

Playfair,  Mr.,  quoted,  152 

Plug  and  feather,  349 

Plug-and-feather  splitting,  324,  325 

Plymouth  marble,  composition  of,  112 

Point,  the,  349 

Pointed-face  finish,  333 

Polishing  stone,  329 

Polishing  stone,  preparation  of  sur- 
face, 328 

Polish  on  marble,  lasting  power  of,  369 

Polished  surface,  334 

Porosity  of  stone,  how  shown,  379 


Porphyritic  diorites,  241 

Porphyritic  felsite,  218 

Porphyries,  porphyritic  felsites,  217 

Porphyry,  Maine,  220 

Porphyry,  Massachusetts,  219 

Porphyry,  Minnesota,  220 

Porphyry,  Missouri,  22O 

Porphyry,  Nevada,  221 

Porphyry,  New  Hampshire,  220 

Porphyry,  North  Carolina,  220 

Porphyry,  Pennsylvania,  220 

Porphyry,  Russian,  221 

Porphyry,  Sweden,  219, 

Porphyry,  uses  of,  218 

Porphyry,  varieties  of,  218 

Porphyry,  Wisconsin,  220 

Portage  Entry  sandstone,  265 

Portland  stone,  155 

Portland  (Conn.)  sandstone,  258 

Portland  sandstone,  weathering  of,259 

Portor  marble,  165 

Portugal,  marbles  of,  161 

Position  of  stone   in  wall    regarding 

durability,  395 
Potomac  marble,  93 
Potstone,  45 
Potsdam    sandstone    of     New    York 

State,  272 

Potsdam  sandstone,  qualities  of,  273 
Powder,  use  of  in  quarrying,  323 
Precautionary     methods     of    laying 

stone,  395 

Precautions  to  be  observed  in  select- 
ing stone,  377 

Preservatives  for  stone,  399 
Prices  of  stone  and  cost  of  cutting, 

table,  422 

Price-list  of  Italian  marbles,  table,  423 
Protection  of  stone  by  solution,  399 
Procter,  Prof.,  quoted,  134 
Proctor,  Vermont,  no 
Protogine,  178 
Pumice,  222 
Pumice  finish,  334 
Putty  gloss  surface,  334 
Pyrite,  effects  of  oxidation,  360 
Pyroxenes,  the,  properties  of,  24 
Qualifications  of  good  building-stone, 

378 
Qualities  of  stone  as  shown  by  tests, 

(tables),  403 
Quarrying,  time  of,  383 


INDEX. 


449 


Quarry  water  in  stones,  364 

Buarrying  and  splitting  slate,  330 
uarrying  granite,  320 
Quarrying  marble,  321 

B uarrying  sandstone,  322 
uartz,  172 
Quartz,  properties  of,  20 

B  uartz  diorite,  242 
uartzite,  249 
euartzite,  Minnesota,  265 
uartzite,  South  Dakota,   282 
e uartz  porphyry,  218 
uebec,  sandstones  of,  288 
Quincy,  early  quarrying  at,  2 
Quincy  granites,  195 
Quincy,  Mass,  quarries  opened,  194 
Raindrop  stone,  264 
Rand,  T.  D.,  quoted,  68 
Ransome's     process     for    preserving 

stone,  401 
Ratio  of  absorption  of  building-stones, 

table,  404 

Ratio  of  absorption  of  moisture,  385 
Reade,  T.  Mellard,  quoted,  372 
Red  Beach  granite,   185 
Red  granite,  Connecticut,  183 
Red  granite,  New  York,  204 
Red  sand-rock,  thickness  of  formation, 

no 

Red  slates  of  New  York  State,  305 
Red  slate  in  Pennsylvania,  309 
Reno,  Nevada,  andesite  used  at,  243 
Responsibility  of  architect  and  builder, 

350 

Rhode  Island,  granite  of,  208 
Rhode  Island,  resources  of,  16 
Rhodochrosite,  173 
Rhodonite,  174 
Rhyolites,  222 
Ribbons  in  slate,  295 
Rice,  Prof.  W.  N.,  quoted,  150 
Richmond  granites,  211 
Ricolite,  64 

Rift  and  grain  of  rocks,  39 
Rock  classification,  42 
Rock,  definition  of,  17 
Rock-faced  finish,  333 
Rock-forming  minerals  defined,  17 
Rock-forming  minerals,  list  of,  19 
Rockport,  Mass.,  early  quarries,  3 
Rogers,  Prof.,  quoted,  100 
Rose-crystal  marble,  96 


Rosso  antico  of  Egypt,  241 
Ruin  marble,  166 
Russia,  porphyry  of,  221 
Rutland,  Vermont,  marble  quarries,  108 
St.  Genivieve  sandstone  267 
St.  Anne  marble,  157 
Sandstone,  absorptive  powers  of,  371 
Sandstone,  Alabama,  249 
Sandstone,  Arizona,  249 
Sandstone,  Arkansas,  250 
Sandstone,  British  Columbia,  287 
Sandstone,  California,  251 
Sandstone,  Colorado,  254 
Sandstone,  Connecticut,  257 
Sandstone,  Georgia,  260 
Sandstones,  Idaho,  260 
Sandstone,  Illinois,  260 
Sandstone,  Indiana,  260 
Sandstones,  Iowa,  261 
Sandstone,  Kansas,  261 
Sandstone,  Kentucky,  261 
Sandstone,  Maine,  262 
Sandstone,  Maryland,  262 
Sandstone,  Massachusetts,  263 
Sandstone,  Michigan,  264 
Sandstone,  Minnesota,  265 
Sandstone,  Mississippi,  266 
Sandstone,  Missouri,  267 
Sandstone,  Montana,  268 
Sandstone,  Nebraska,  268 
Sandstone,  Nevada,  268 
Sandstone,  New  Brunswick,  288 
Sandstone,  New  Jersey,  269 
Sandstone,  New  Mexico,  269 
Sandstones,  New  York,  270 
Sandstone,  North  Carolina,  274 
Sandstone,  Nova  Scotia,  288 
Sandstones,  Ohio,  274 
Sandstone,  Oregon,  279 
Sandstone,  Pennsylvania,  279 
Sandstone,  Quebec,  288 
Sandstone,  Scotland,  289 
Sandstone,  Tennessee,  283 
Sandstone,  Texas,  283 
Sandstone,  Utah,  284 
Sandstone,  Virginia,  284 
Sandstone,  Washington,  285 
Sandstone,  West  Virginia,  285 
Sandstone,  Wisconsin,  286 
Sandstone    and   granite,   relative  fire- 
proof qualities  shown,  367 
Sandstones,  cementing  material  of,  245 


450 


INDEX. 


Sandstones,  color  of,  247 
Sandstones,  composition  andorigin,  245 
Sandstones,  definition  of,  245 
Sandstones,  early  quarrying  at  Port- 
land, Connecticut,  6 
Sandstone,  effects  of  freezing,  259 
Sandstones,  foreign,  287 
Sandstones,  geological  age  of,  249 
Sandstone,  law  relative  to  quarrying,  7 
Sandstone,  lichens  on,  373 
Sandstone,  quarrying,  322 
Sandstone,  tombstones  of,  260 
Sandstone,  varieties  of,  248 
Sandstone,  weathering,  properties  of, 

37i 

Sand-blast,  the,  347 
Sand-blast,  use  of,  in  stone-cutting,  329 
Sanders,  R.  H.,  quoted,  308 
San  Luis  Obispo  onyx,  117 
Satin  spar,  76 

Saunders'  channelling-machine,  337 
Sawed  face,  334 

Sawing  school-slates,  method,  333 
Sawing  slate,  method  of,  332 
Sawing  stone,  machines  used  in,  344 
Schists,  the,  244 
Schists,  origin  of,  245 
School-slates,  manufacture  of,  309 
Scotland,  granite  of,  216 
Scale  of  hardness,  20 
Scaling  house-fronts  in  New  York,  352 
Scaling  of  stone  in  lower  courses,  396 
Schweitzer,  Dr.  P.,  quoted,  247 
Scotland,  sandstone  of,  289 
Sculping  slate,  330 
Secondary  constituents  of  rocks,  18 
Selection  of  building-stone,  374 
Selenite,  see  Gypsum,  75 
Seneca  Creek  sandstone,  262 
Serpentine,  California,  57 
Serpentine,  Canada,  72 
Serpentine,  Connecticut,  58 
Serpentine,  Delaware,  60 
Serpentine,  England,  72 
Serpentine,  foreign,  72 
Serpentine,  Ireland,  73 
Serpentine,  Italy,  74 
Serpentine,  Maine,  60 
Serpentine,  Maryland,  60 
Serpentine,  Massachusetts,  62 
Serpentine,  New  Jersey,  63 
Serpentine,  New  Mexico,  64 


Serpentine,  New  York,  64 
Serpentine,  North  California,  67 
Serpentine,  Pennsylvania,  67 
Serpentine.  Texas,  70 
Serpentine,  Vermont,  70 
Serpentine,  composition,    origin,  and 

uses,  53 

Serpentine,  origin  of  name,  54 
Serpentine,    ophicalcite,    verd-antique 

marble,  53 

Serpentine,  properties,  26 
Serpentine, weathering  qualities  of,  69 
Serpentine,  weathering  properties  of, 

373 

Serpentine,  var.  Williamsite,  61 
Shap  granite,  216 
Shell  limestone  defined,  82 
Shell  sand-rock  defined,  82 
Shepard,  C.  U.,  quoted,  58 
Siena  marble,  164 

Size  of  cubes  tested  for  strength,  385 
Slates,  293 
Slate,  Arkansas,  299 
Slate,  California,  299 
Slate,  Canada,  312 
Slate,  Colorado,  299 
Slate,  Georgia,  299 
Slate,  Great  Britain,  312 
Slate,  Maine,  300 
Slates,  Maine,  distribution  of,  300 
Slate,  Maryland,  301 
Slate,  Massachusetts,  301 
Slate,  Michigan,  302 
Slate,  Minnesota,  303 
Slate,  New  Hampshire,  303 
Slate,  New  Hampshire,  303 
Slate,  New  Jersey,  303 
Slate,  New  York,  304 
Slate,  Pennsylvania,  306 
Slate,  South  Carolina,  309 
Slate,  South  Dakota,  299 
Slate,  Tennessee,  309 
Slate,  Texas,  310 
Slate,  Vermont,  310 
Slate,  Virginia,  311 
Slaty  cleavage,  cause  of,  295 
Slates,  composition  and  origin,  293 
Slate,  early  quarrying  in  the  U.  S. ,  9 
Slate  exported  to  foreign  countries,  10 
Slate,  microstructure  of,  294 
Slate,  number  necessary  for  a  square, 

298   • 


INDEX. 


451 


Slate,  quarrying  in  Vermont,  date  of 

beginning,  310 

Slate,  quarrying  and  splitting,  330 
Slate  waste,  utilized  in  brick-making, 

308 

Slate,  waste  of,  297 
Sledge  or  striking-hammer,  348 
Smith's  Lithology,  quoted,  381 
Smithsonian  building,  erected,  262 
Smock,  Prof.  J.  C.,  quoted,  141,  204 
Scapstone,  45 
Soapstone,  Arkansas,  47 
Soapstone,  California,  47 
Soapstone,  Maine,  47 
Soapstone,  Maryland,  48 
Soapstone,  Massachusetts,  48 
Soapstone,  New  Hampshire,  48 
Soapstone,  New  York,  49 
Soapstone,  North  Carolina,  49 
Soapstone,  Pennsylvania,  49 
Soapstone,  South  Carolina,  50 
Soapstone,  Texas,  50 
Soapstone,  Vermont,  51 
Soapstone,  Virginia,  52 
Soapstone,  composition  and  uses  of,  45 
Soapstone,  occurrence  of,  47 
Soapstone,  weathering  properties  of, 

373 

Soft-soap-and-alum    solution   for    pre- 
serving stone,  401 
Solubility   of    cementing    material   of 

sandstone,  363 

Solution,  effect  of,  on  stone,  362 
Solutions  for  preserving  stone,  399 
South  Carolina,  granites  of,  209 
South  Carolina,  resources  of,  16 
South  Carolina,  slates  of,  309 
South  Carolina,  soapstone  of,  50 
South  Dakota,  quartzite  of,  282 
South  Dakota,  resources  of,  16 
Spain,  marbles,  161 
Specific  gravity  of  rocks,  33 
Specific  gravity  of  stone  as  indicative 

of  its  strength,  390 
Specific    gravity    of    building-stones, 

table  of,  404 
Specular  iron,    see   under    Hematite, 

32 
Splitting  stone  by  plug  and  feathers, 

324 
Splitting  stone  with  wedges,  invention 

of,  325 


Splitting  slate,  methods  of,  331 

Square-drove  finish,  334 

Stalactite  defined,  Si 

Stalagmite  defined,  81 

Stalagmitic  marbles  of  Virginia,  119 

Stalagmite  marble,  Gibraltar,  121 

Statistics  of  marble  industry,  116 

Statuary  marble  of  Italy,  163 

Steatite,  soapstone,  45 

Stone  dressing,  ancient  method,  327 

Stone  dressing,  Peruvian  method,  327 

Stone,  induration  of,  363 

Stone,  methods  of  quarrying,  314 

Stone  preservatives,  399 

Stone    preservatives,    Caffal    process, 
400 

Stone   preservatives,   Kuhlman's  pro- 
cess, 402 

Stone  preservatives,  Lewin's  process, 
402 

Stone  preservatives,  oil,  399 

paint,  399 
paraffine,  400 

"  soft  -  soap  -  and- 

alum  solution,  401 

Stone  preservatives,    Sylvester's  pro- 
cess, 401 

Stone  preservatives,  Szerelmey's  pro- 
cess, 402 

Stone  preservatives,  Ransome's   pro- 
cess, 401 

Stone-sawing  machines,  344 

Stone  structures,  list  of,  425 

Stony  Creek  granite,  183 

Stratified  granite,  see  Gneiss,  244 

Strength    of    building-stones,    tables, 
404 

Strength  and   ratio   of  absorption  of 
stone,  385 

Strength     of    stone,    preparation    of 
cubes  for  tests,  386 

Strength  of  stone,  value  overestimated, 

385 
Strength  in  excess  of  15,000  Ibs.  per 

sq.  in.  of  little  value,  385 
Strike-joints,  316 
Striking-hammer,  348 
Structure  of  rocks,  33 
Stunning  stone  by  hammering,  397 
Sulphuric  acid  in  atmosphere,  359 
Sutherland    Falls,    Vermont,    marbles 

of,  109 


452 


INDEX. 


Svvanton,  Vermont,  marble  of,  112 
Sweden,  porphyry  of,  219 
Syene,  granite  of,  214 
Syenite,  definition  of,  223 
Syenite,  localities  of,  in  U.  S.,  224 
Sylvester's      process     for    preserving 

stone,  401 

Szerelmey's  stone  liquid,  402 
Tables  showing  chemical  composition 

of  stones,  414 
Tables    showing  qualities    of   stones, 

400 
Tables    showing    specific    gravity    of 

stones,  403 

Tables  showing  strength  of  stones,  403 
Talc,  properties  of,  27 
Talc,  see  Steatite,  45 
Tenant's  Harbor,  Me.,  diabase,  231 
Tennessee,  granite  of,  209 
Tennessee,  limestone  in,  148 
Tennessee,  marbles  in,  102 
Tennessee,  resources  of,  16 
Tennessee,  sandstone  of,  283 
Tennessee,  slates  of,  309 
Testing  building-stone,  384 
Testing  stone,  Brard's  process,  387 
Testing  stone,  remarks  on,  394 
Texas,  diorites  of,  241 
Texas,  granite  of,  210 
Texas,  limestone  of,  148 
Texas,  marble  of,  104 
Texas,  resources  of,  16 
Texas,  sandstone  of,  283 
Texas,  serpentine  of,  70 
Texas,  slates  of,  310 
Texas,  soapstone  in,  50 
Thulite  stone,  174 
Tonalite,  240 
Tutten's   experiments   on    expansion 

and  contraction,  354 
Tools  used  in  granite-working,  328 
Tooth-chiselled  finish,  334 
Tooth-chisel,  349 
Trachyte,  226 
Trachyte,  definition  of,  226 
Trachyte,  derivation  of  name,  227 
Trachyte,  localities  of,   in  U.  S.,  227 
Trachytes,  utility  of,  227 
Trap,  see  Diabase,  228 
Travertine,  116 
Travertine,  defined,  80 
Travertine,  France,  121 


Travertine,  Germany,  121 

Travertine  of  Italy,  121 

Travertine,  origin  of  name,  81 

Travertine,  see  Onyx  marble,  116 

Trenton  limestone,  weathering  qual- 
ities of,  137 

Triassic  sandstone,  areas  of,  in  the 
U.  S.,  258 

Trimming  slate,  method  of,  332 

Trowlesworthite,  179 

Tuffs,  290 

Tuff,  Colorado,  292 

Tuffs  of  the  various  States  and  Terri- 
tories, 292 

Tuffs,  foreign,  where  used,  292 

Tuffs,  Mexican,  292 

Tuffs,  qualities  of,  291 

Tuffs,  uses  of,  291 

Tuffs,  varieties  of,  291 

Twisted  wire  cord  stone-saw,  346 

Unakite,  212 

Underthroating  of  sills,  necessity  of, 
396 

University  Hall,  Cambridge,  erection 
of,  2 

Uses  of  granite,  179 

Uses  of  slate,  298 

Uses  of  porphyry,  218 

Utah,  granite  of,  210 

Utah,  marbles  in,  105 

Utah,  resources  of,  16 

Utah,  sandstone  of,  284 

Variation  in  stones  from  same  quarry, 
380 

Varieties  of  granite,  128 

Varieties  of  limestone  and  dolomite, 
80 

Varieties  of  liparite,  222 

Varieties  of  porphyry,  218 

Varieties  of  sandstone,  248 

Veined  stones,  unequal  weathering  of, 
382 

Verd-antique  marbles,  poor  weather- 
ing qualities,  382 

Verd-antique    marble,  see  Serpentine, 

53 

Vert  de  Genes,  75 
Verde  di  Levante,  75 
Verde  di  Prato,  75 
Vermont,  early  marble-quarrying,  5 
Vermont,  granites  of,  210 
Vermont,  marble  in,  105 


INDEX. 


453 


Vermont,  resources  of,  16 

Vermont  serpentine,  70 

Vermont,  soapstone  in,  51 

Vermont,  slates  of,  310 

Verte  Island  sandstones,  287 

Vinalhaven  diabase,  231 

Vinalhaven  granite,  188 

Violet,  A.,  quoted,  158 

Virginia  City,  Montana,  andesite  used 

at,  244 
Virginia  City,  Nev.,  andesite  used  at, 

243 

Virginia,  diabase  of,  234 
Virginia,  granites  of,  211 
Virginia,  marble  of,  113 
Virginia,  resources  of,  16 
Virginia,  sandstone  of,  284 
Virginia,  slates  of,  311 
Virginia,  soapstone  in,  52 
Virginia,  stalagmitic  deposits,  119 
Viridite,  see  chlorite    28 
Volcanic  fragmental  rocks,  290 
Volcanic  tuff,  Cordelia,254 
Volcanic  tuff,  New  Mexico,  270 
Wadsworth,  Dr.  M.  E.,  quoted,  364 
Washington    Monument    referred    to, 

352 

Washington,  resources  of,  16 
Washington,  sandstone  of,  285 
Waverly  group  in  Ohio,  section  of,  275 
Wedge  or  plug,  349 
Wedge  used  in  stone-splitting,  349 
Welsh  slates,  312 
Weathering  defined,  352 
Weathering  of  building-stone,  350 
Weathering  of   limestones  and    dolo- 
mites, 367 
Weathering  properties  of  granite,  365 


Weathering     properties    of    gypsum, 

373 
Weathering  properties  of  serpentine, 

374 
Weathering  properties  of  sandstone, 

371 
Weathering  properties  of  soapstone, 

373 

Weight  per  cubic  foot  of  building- 
stones,  tables,  404 

Westerly  granite,  208 

West  Rutland,  Vt.,  description  of 
quarries,  108 

West  Virginia,  resources  ofj  16 

West  Virginia,  sandstone  of,  285 

White,  Dr.  C.  A.,  quoted,  76 

Wichman,  Dr.,  quoted,  293 

Williams,  G.  H.,  quoted,  62 

Winchell,  Prof.  N.  H.,  quoted,  137, 
236,  370 

Wind-blown  sand,  effects  of,  357 

Window-pane  abraded  by  sand,  357 

Winooski  marble,  in 

Wisconsin,  granites  of,  213 

Wisconsin,  limestones  in,  149 

Wisconsin,  porphyry  of,  220 

Wisconsin,  resources  of,  16 

Wisconsin,  sandstone  of,  286 

Wyoming,  granites  of,  213 

Wyoming,  marbles  of,  115 

Wyoming,  resources  of,  16 

Woodstock  granite,  193 

Works  on  building-stone,  bibliogra- 
phy, 428 

Yellow  marble,  Italian,  165 

Yellow  marble,  Portugal,  162 

Yellowstone  National  Park,  obsidian 
in,  223 


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